12 mata
[ ˈmã.tə]
‘eye’ tonok
[ˈtɔ.nɔ̃k̚] ‘mosquito’
All consonants except semivowels block nasal spread as seen in 13. 13
minjait [m ɪ̃n.ˈ�̃ãĩt̚]
‘lightning’ Word-final nasals are simple if the preceding vowel is nasalized as in 14, but preploded if the
preceding vowel is non-nasalized as in 15. 14
paŋan [ˈɸa.ŋə̃n]
‘companion’ keŋɡamaŋ [kəŋ.ˈɡa.mə̃ŋ] ‘spider’
15 ba
ɾam [ˈba.ɾəᵇm]
‘many’ sindoin
[sʲɪn.ˈdoiᵈn] ‘fingernail’
tembaŋ [ˈtɛm.bəᵏŋ] ‘deer’
The phoneme o can only occur in the penultimate syllable if the final syllable also contains o as in 16 or a high vowel i.e. i or u as in 17.
16 onom
[ˈɔ.nɔ̃m] ‘six’ dolok
[ˈdɔ.lɔk̚] ‘rain’
17 bokit
[ˈbʷo.hɪt̚] ‘bird’ tolu
[ˈto.lu] ‘three’
The surface vowels [o] and [ɔ] are in complementary distribution. The phoneme o is realized as [o] in the penultimate syllable if the final syllable contains a high vowel, i or u, as in 17. If o is
immediately followed by a high vowel as in 19, the two vowels form a diphthong which is the nucleus of a heavy syllable.
18 bokit
[ ˈbʷo.hɪt̚]
‘bird’ obuk
[ˈo.βʷʊk̚] ‘hair’
19 oid
[ ˈoid̚]
‘boat’ loud
[ ˈloud̚]
‘sea’ The allophone [
ɔ] occurs only if the last two vowels in the word are [ɔ]. The phoneme o is realized as [
ɔ] in the penultimate syllable if the final syllable also contains an o which is realized as [
ɔ] as in 20. If o is immediately followed by another o as in 21, the two vowels form a phonetically long vowel [
ɔɔ] which is the nucleus of a heavy syllable. 20
dolok [ˈdɔ.lɔk̚]
‘rain’ dodos
[ˈdɔ.dɔs] ‘wind’
21 tempoorn [t
əm.ˈp
w
ɔɔɾᵈn] ‘shore’
koo [ˈkʷɔɔ] ‘wing’
2.2 Morphology and morphophonemics
The three major word classes which occur in the wordlists are nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Minor word classes include quantifiers e.g. §3.15 and negators e.g. §3.20. All nouns and minor word classes in the
wordlists are bare roots. The following two sections briefly discuss the grammatical morphemes which are found in the wordlists in §3. Most of the affixes described are prefixes which occur on verbs.
2.2.1 Adjectives
Some adjectives can occur either as a bare root or with the attributive prefix m-
1
‘
ATTR
’ as in 22. Other adjectives such as me-langgu ‘
ATTR
-long’ in 23 always occur with the prefix m- ‘
ATTR
’. Still other adjectives such as baru ‘new’ in 24 never occur with the prefix m- ‘
ATTR
’. 22
panas [ˈɸa.nə̃s] ‘hot as water’
m-
1
panas [ m̩.ˈpa.nə̃s]
‘hot as water’ 23
m-
1
laŋɡu [mə̃.ˈlaŋ.ɡʷu] ‘long object’ 24
ba ɾu
[ˈba.ɾu] ‘new’
If the nasal prefix m- ‘
ATTR
’ occurs before non-sonorant consonants, it assimilates to the same point of articulation as the following non-sonorant consonant as in 25.
6
The underlying form m-
1
‘
ATTR
’ occurs before vowel-initial roots as seen in26.
25 m-
1
peit [m̩.ˈpeit̚]
‘bitter’ m-
1
doot [n̩.ˈdɔɔt̚]
‘bad’ m-
1
kapal [ ŋ̍.ˈka.ɸal] ‘thick object’
26 m-
1
omis [ˈmʷõ.mɪ̃s] ‘sweet’
m-
1
iŋad [ˈmĩ.ŋə̃d̚] ‘near’ If the nasal prefix m- ‘
ATTR
’ occurs before sonorant consonants, an epenthetic vowel is inserted between the nasal prefix m- ‘
ATTR
’ and the initial consonant of the root as in 27 and 28. 27
m-
1
laŋɡu [mə̃.ˈlaŋ.ɡʷu] ‘long object’ m-
1
lompuŋ [mə̃.ˈlom.pʷʊᵏŋ] ‘fat adj.’ 28
m-
1
nipis [m
ɪ̃.ˈnʲĩ.ɸɪs] ‘thin object’ The epenthetic vowel in 27 and 28 is a copy of the controlling vowel, which is the first vowel of
the root. The contrast between the non-high vowels i.e. e, o, and a is neutralized as [ ə] in
prestressed syllables. Thus, in 27 the contrast between the epenthetic vowels a and o is neutralized as [
ə]. In 28 the epenthetic vowel i is laxed, because it occurs in a prestressed syllable preceding a consonant.
2.2.2 Verbs
Bonggi has a class of activity verbs that are marked by-m-
1
‘
ACY
’. This affix is realized as an infix, if it occurs with non-bilabial consonant-initial roots as in 29. The infix is inserted after the initial consonant
of the root. Because complex syllable onsets are not permitted, an epenthetic vowel is inserted between the initial consonant of the root and the infix. The epenthetic vowel is a copy of the controlling vowel
which is the first vowel of the root. If the epenthetic vowel is a non-high vowel, it is neutralized as [ ə]. If
the epenthetic vowel is a high vowel i.e. i or u, it is laxed. 29
-m-
1
suka [s
ʊ.ˈmʷu.hə] ‘to vomit’ -m-
1
toi [t ə.ˈmʷõĩ]
‘to defecate’ -m-
1
loŋi [l
ə.ˈmʷõ.ŋʲĩ] ‘to swim’ If the root begins with a vowel or a bilabial consonant -m-
1
, ‘
ACY
’ is realized as a prefix m- ‘
ACY
’ as in 30.
30 -m-
1
abat [
ˈmã.βət̚] ‘to answer’
-m-
1
iŋɡat [ˈmɪ̃ŋ.ɡət̚] ‘to chew betel nut’ -m-
1
panu [m̩.ˈpa.nũ]
‘to walk’ -m-
1
bunu ʔ [m̩.ˈbʷu.nũʔ] ‘to fight’
A second infix -m-
2
‘
ACC
’ marks accomplishment verbs, but only occurs once in the wordlists. It is inserted after the initial consonant of roots, which begin with a non-bilabial consonant as in 31. An
epenthetic vowel is inserted between the initial consonant of the root and the infix. If the epenthetic vowel is a non-high vowel, it is neutralized as [
ə]. 31
-m-
2
ɡalak [
ɡə.ˈmã.lək̚] ‘to boil intrans.’
Achievement verbs are a third class of verbs. They occur infrequently in the wordlists. Imperfective achievement verbs are marked by m-
3
‘
IMPERF
.
ACH
’ as in 32 and 33. If m-
3
attaches to a consonant-initial root as in 32, an epenthetic vowel is inserted between the prefix and the initial
consonant of the root. The epenthetic vowel is a copy of the controlling vowel which is the first vowel of the root. If the epenthetic vowel is a non-high vowel, it is neutralized as [
ə].
6
Syllabic nasals [m̩], [n̩], and [ŋ̍] occur word-initially before nasals and homorganic obstruents. A raised syllabic marker is used to show syllabicity on nasals with descenders Pullum and Ladusaw 1996:306.
32 m-
3
dabu ʔ
[m ə̃.ˈda.βuʔ] ‘to fall drop’ m-
3
tei ɾn [mə̃.ˈtʲeiɾᵈn] ‘to lose’
33 m-
3
udap -an [mʷũ.ˈda.ɸəᵈn] ‘hungry’
The wordlists in §3 contain some verbs of perception or cognition, which have an experiencer subject marked by the prefix k- ‘
EXPER
’ as in 34 and 35. 34
k- doo ɾ
[k ə.ˈdɔɔɾ]
‘to hear’ k- tondu
ʔ [kə.ˈton.duʔ] ‘to know person’ 35
k- liid [
kʲɪ. ˈlʲiid̚] ‘to see’
k- lipat [
kʲɪ.ˈlʲi.ɸət̚] ‘to forget’ An epenthetic vowel is inserted between the prefix k- ‘
EXPER
’ and the initial consonant of consonant-initial roots. The epenthetic vowel is a copy of the controlling vowel which is the first vowel
of the root. If the epenthetic vowel is a non-high vowel, it is neutralized as [ ə] as in 34. If the
epenthetic vowel is a high vowel, it is laxed as in 35. Another class of verbs has steady-state aspect, which is marked by the prefix
ɡ- ‘
STEADY
’ as seen in 36 and 37.
7
36 ɡ- itoot
[ ɡʲɪ.ˈtɔɔt̚]
‘to lie untruth’ ɡ- ubu
[ˈɡʷu.βʷu] ‘to laugh’ 37
ɡ- ɾampus [ɡə.ˈɾam.pʷʊs] ‘to be angry’ ɡ- nipi
[ ɡɪ.ˈnʲĩ.ɸi] ‘to dream’
The examples in 36 contain vowel-initial roots, whereas those in 37 contain consonant-initial roots. An epenthetic vowel is inserted between the prefix
ɡ- ‘
STEADY
’ and the initial consonant of consonant-initial roots. The epenthetic vowel is a copy of the controlling vowel, which is the first vowel
of the root. If the epenthetic vowel is a non-high vowel, it is neutralized as [ ə]. However, if it is a high
vowel, it is laxed. Some verbs are derived from noun roots by the prefix
ɡ- ‘
STEADY
’ as illustrated in 38, where the verb nggapi ‘to cook’ is derived from the noun api ‘fire’. The verb nggapi ‘to cook’ contains three
morphemes: 1 the noun root api ‘fire’, 2 the derivational prefix ɡ- ‘
STEADY
’, and 3 the inflectional prefix m-
2
‘
IMPERF
’ marking imperfective aspect. The perfective form of this verb is igapi ‘was cooked’ with the inflectional prefix i- ‘
PERF
’ marking perfective aspect. 38
api [ˈa.ɸi] ‘fire’
m-
2
ɡ- api [
ŋ̩̩̩.ˈɡa.ɸi] ‘to cook’
Some verb stems, which are marked by ɡ- ‘
STEADY
’, e.g., ‘cook’ in 38 are always inflected with imperfective or perfective aspect, whereas other verb stems like those in 36 and 37 can appear
without an inflectional prefix. The verbs in 36 and 37 can be inflected with m-
2
‘IMPERF’ or i- ‘
PERF
’ aspect. When elicting wordlists, language consultants provided either uninflected verbs stems or imperfective aspect forms.
The causative prefix p- ‘
CAUS
’ is illustrated in 39. An epenthetic vowel is inserted between the prefix p- ‘
CAUS
’ and the initial consonant of consonant-initial roots. Because the epenthetic vowel in 39 is non-high, it is realized as [
ə]. 39
p- boli [ ɸə.ˈβʷo.lʲi] ‘to sell’
Bonggi has a class of actor voice transitive verbs, which are marked by the prefix ŋ- ‘
AV
.
TRAN
’. If
the root begins with a voiceless consonant or b , the ŋ and the root-initial consonant coalesce, and
are then replaced by a nasal homorganic to the root-initial consonant, as seen in 40. 40
ŋ- poɾoʔ [ˈmʷɔ̃.ɾɔʔ] ‘to tell’
ŋ- boɾi [ˈmʷõ.ɾʲi] ‘to give’ ŋ- tanam [ˈnã.nə̃m]
‘to plant’ ŋ- sipak [ˈnʲĩ.ɸək̚] ‘to kick’
ŋ- kokol [ˈŋʷɔ̃.h
w
ɔl] ‘to bite’
7
For a discussion of steady-state aspect see Talmy 2007:107.
The underlying form ŋ- ‘
AV
.
TRAN
’ occurs before vowel-initial roots as seen in 41.
41 ŋ- adak [ˈŋã.dək̚]
‘to smell something’ ŋ- inum [ˈŋʲĩ.nũm] ‘to drink’
As seen in 42, coalescence does not occur with voiced consonants other than b. Instead, an epenthetic vowel is inserted between the prefix
ŋ- ‘
AV
.
TRAN
’ and the root-initial consonant. If the
epenthetic vowel is a non-high vowel, it is neutralized as [ ə]. However, if it is a high vowel, it is laxed.
42 ŋ- loboŋ [ŋə̃.ˈlɔ.βɔᵏŋ] ‘to bury the dead’ ŋ- laak [ŋə̃.ˈlaak̚] ‘to dry in sun’
ŋ- ɾiaak [ŋʲɪ̃.ɾʲi.ˈaak̚] ‘to pull’ The wordlists contain three examples in which the first syllable of the root is reduplicated. They are
shown in 43. 43
CV- toi [t
ə.ˈtoi] ‘excrement’
CV- suad [s ʊ.ˈsu.əd̚] ‘story’
CV- bali [b ə.ˈβa.lʲi] ‘to play’
2.3 Orthographic conventions
