18 being given so called VPM-label in which VPM stands for Voicing, Place, and
Manner”. Therefore, based on the activity of vocal cords, there are two types of
consonants. They are voiced and voiceless consonants. Voiced consonants are [b], [d], [
g
], [d
Ʒ
], [v], [ð], [z], [
Ʒ
], [m], [n], [ŋ], [l], [r], [w], and [j]. The voiceless are [p], [t], [k], [t∫], [f], [θ], [s], [∫], and [h].
Based on the place of articulation, consonants can be classified into eight classes. Hamann and Carmen 2005:8 state the eight classes are:
1. Bilabial
Bilabial sounds are sounds that are produced when the lips are brought together. For examples are [p], [b] and [m]
2. Labiodental
Labiodental sounds are sounds that are made when the lower lip is raised towards the upper front teeth; for instance [f], and [v]
3. Dental
Dental sounds are sounds that are produced by touching the upper teeth with the tip of the tongue, l
ike [θ] and [ð].
4. Alveolar
Alveolar sounds are sounds that are made by raising the blade of the tongue towards the ridge that is right behind the upper front teeth
alveolar ridge. Consonants that are classified into alveolar are [t], [s], [d], [z], [n], [l], and [r].
19
5. Palatoalveolar
Palatoalveolar sounds are sounds that are made by raising the blade of the tongue towards the part of the palate just behind the alveolar ridge.
Example of palatoalveolar consonants are [∫], [t∫] [Ʒ], and [dƷ].
6. Palatal
Palatal sounds are sounds that are produced further back towards the velum. In English, we just have one palatal sounds, that is [j].
7. Velar
These sounds are made by raising the back of the tongue towards the soft palate or we call it velum. The velars soun
ds in English are [k], [ŋ] and [w].
8. Glottal
Glottal sounds are sounds that are produced when the air passes through the glottis as it is narrowed like [h] in “high”
The last way in classifying consonants is by its manner of articulation. Hamann and Carmen 2005 found there are six classes of consonants; they are:
1. Plosive
Consonants are classified into plosives when the air is blocked for a fraction of a second because there is a complete closure in the mouth, and
then it is released with a small burst of sound. Plosive sounds may be bilabial [p,b], alveolar [t, d] or velar [k,
g
] and then the last one called glottal stop.
20
2. Fricatives
Fricative consonants are consonants that are produced because of a closure, but the closure is not quite complete. It means that the air is not
blocked at any point. That is why there is no plosion in fricatives, but the obstruction is big enough. That obstruction can make a noise when the air
passes through. Fricatives may be labiodentals like [f] and [v], dental like [
θ] and [ð], alveolar like [s], and [z], palato-alveolar [∫], and [
Ʒ
] or glottal [h].
3. Affricates
