11
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter consists of two parts, namely, theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description discusses the related literature
used in this study. The theoretical framework presents the main theories applied in conducting this study.
A. Theoretical Description
The theoretical description discusses, firstly, theories of nouns which are related to noun types, forms, and markers. Secondly, it discusses the opinion column
in The Jakarta Post. Thirdly, it discusses Global Warming topic. Fourthly, it discusses some related sources which are two English grammar books and two
dictionaries.
1. Nouns
Noun can be considered as one of the most important part of speech, because it is most widely used in a sentence and considered as the main word of a sentence.
As defined by Frank 1972: 6: “… it may function as the chief or “head” word in many structures of modification.”
According to Frank 1972: 6-19, the explanation about nouns is divided into five main topics. They are types, function, position, form, and markers of nouns.
12 Meanwhile, Curme 1947: 11-13 suggests the definition and classification of nouns
involving common, proper nouns, compound and derivative nouns.
a. Types
This section discusses the classification, the definition, and the examples of nouns types as suggested by Frank and Curme.
As suggested by Frank 1972: 6-19, nouns types are classified into two kinds. They are meaning-based and form-based classifications. Meaning-based
classification consists of four noun types. They are proper nouns, concrete or abstract nouns, countable or noncountable nouns, and collective nouns. Meanwhile form-
based classification consists of one noun type, noun compounds. Meanwhile, the classification of nouns types according to Curme 1947: 11-
13 consists of two main types, which are common and proper nouns. Here, common nouns involve formless mass nouns, collective nouns, abstract nouns, and concrete
nouns. Compound nouns are not classified as the nouns types but as one of the nouns forms.
The similarities on two English grammar books by Frank and Curme are that common nouns involve all other nouns types except proper nouns and that
compounds nouns are treated as a form-based noun type. The definition of common nouns based on Frank 1972: 6 is “all other
nouns” that are not classified as proper nouns. Meanwhile, Curme 1947: 11 suggests the definition of common nouns as a name that can be applied to any one of
a class of living beings or lifeless things. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
13 Meanwhile, the term compound nouns in accordance with Frank’s book
1972: 7 means “a group of words” two or more which “are joined together into one vocabulary unit that functions as a single part of speech. Likewise, Curme 1947:
12 defines compound nouns as “a group of two or more nouns that often forms a unit, a compound” in the case of both common and proper nouns.
Based on Frank 1972: 6-7, the definition of a concrete noun is “a word for a physical object that can be perceived by the senses”, while an abstract noun is “ a
word for a concept”. Frank also defines a countable noun as a word that can be pluralized by the adding of -s, while a noncountable noun as a word that is not used
in plural. Moreover, as suggested by Frank, a collective noun means “a word for a group of people, animals or objects considered as a single unit.
The examples of common nouns are finger, climate, book. In addition, according to Quirk et al. 1972: 1019, orthographically, compound nouns can be
written in the solid form e.g. sidewalk, hyphenated e.g. man-made, or open form e.g. teaching aid. Meanwhile, concrete nouns are words like pencil, ruler and
abstract nouns are words like love, truth, faith. The samples of countable nouns are books, pencils, rulers and the sample of noncountable nouns are tea, steel.
Furthermore, examples of collective nouns are government, environment, majority, faculty, enemy.
14
b. Forms
This section consists of the three main classifications of nouns forms based on Frank and Curme. The classification of nouns forms are inflectional, plural
inflectional, possessive inflectional, and derivational nouns. 1
Inflectional Based on Frank 1972: 12, nouns in many European languages may
be inflected, that is, changed in form, for certain grammatical properties. Usually these changes are created through particular endings. Inflectional
forms of nouns may show gender e.g. maid-maiden, brother-sister, case e.g. The teacher sits. The teachers sit., and number e.g. potato-potatoes,
wife-wives. 2
Plural Inflectional Frank 1972: 13 states that the general rule for writing the plural of
English nouns can be done by simply adding -s to the singular form e.g. girl- girls, grape-grapes.
3 Possessive Inflectional
Meanwhile, a singular noun can be changed to possessive form by the adding of -s e.g. one girls mother.
4 Derivational Nouns
Frank 1972: 15 assures that only nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs have derivational forms. These forms may express some degree of
lexical meaning, or they may be little more than part-of-speech indicators. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
15 Besides, Curme 1947: 12 suggests that derivative nouns are similar
to compound nouns in which they are formed by adding an adjective to a common or proper noun or a suffix to a verb. The suffixes are –ness, -ship, -
dom, -th, -er, -ing, -ess and also other endings such as –kin, -ling, -ette, -lett,
-ie, -y . The examples of the nouns are relationship, warmth, heiress,
kitchenette.
c. Markers
As explained by Frank 1972: 18-19, a marker is a structure word that signals the part of speech of a word following it. There are two markers that can
be used to identify whether a word is a noun or not. The markers are determiners and prepositions.
1 Determiners
Frank states that there are five kinds of determiners. The determiners are articles that are divided into indefinite articles -a, -an e.g. a pen, an
employer and definite articles the e.g. the Earth, possessive a e.g. my
lecturer, Marys book, demonstratives e.g. this research, those books, numbers e.g. six representatives, the seventh convention, words of
indefinite quantity a e.g. some farmers, more forests. 2
Prepositions The examples of prepositions are in, from, to, out, of, on behalf of, at,
after e.g. in Bali, after the meeting. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
16 In addition, Frank also writes that descriptive adjectives may indicate the
nouns that follow them e.g. the beautiful dress, a long composition. According to Close 1975: 107, typical nouns endings can also indicate a
noun. They are -er, -or, -ar, -ant, -ist, -age, -al, -ance, -ery, -ment, -sion, -tion, - ure, -ence, -ity, -ness,
and -th. In addition, Quirk et al. 1972: 348 states that noun as a subject “occurs
before the verb phrase in declarative clauses and after the operator in question clauses”. Noun as an object is usually place after the subject and the verb phrase,
while noun as a complement written after the subject, verb phrase, and object.
2. Opinion Column in The Jakarta Post
MacDougal 1966: 16-18 wrote that “opinions are what we ‘think’ is true.” It can be said that every thought can develop into an opinion. In hence, someone can
understand others’ by their idea that is developed onto utterances in an opinion. It is supported by MacDougal 1966: 20 that wrote “All rational thinking do not by any
means come to the same conclusions, so opinions and public opinions will differ.” It indicates that even opinion from one person can be different with another, so it can
also be different among public community. Public opinion can be described as the expression on a controversial point
within an interest group MacDougal, 1966: 25. He also stated that it can be meant as social consciousness. Public opinion should be functioned as a state of opinion
within a public on certain issues or matters when there are differences as well as agreements MacDougal, 1966: 26.
17 So, public opinion is related with people whom each of them is capable to
express their idea by developing an opinion. And while MacDougal 1966: 29 claimed that “human understanding depends on the free flow, throughout the planet,
of movies, radio, and the printed word.”, the researcher may say that opinions can be expressed through written media that are available to everyone publicly. In further,
newspapers are the valuable example medium of expressing opinions. Opinion as a free expression of thought by someone can be either different or
even similar with each other. The variety of opinion can surely depend on certain issue that becomes controversy among a community. When the issue influences
many communities or even all around the world, the opinion may also become so varied. It is also supported by MacDougal’s book, Understanding Public Opinion,
which states “Something becomes a matter of public opinion when it is a subject of popular concern or controversy. If it relates to matters not of public concern, it is
private, not public, opinion.” MacDougal, 1966: 26 In relation with that quotation, any writer who intentionally corresponds his opinion to a newspaper, actually,
publicizes his own opinion to all readers. Here, his opinion can be implied as a public opinion.
Habits and attitudes of someone itself can create opinion in his own mind. In addition, as a member of a group in social community, he also needs to react to every
new experience, so that he can develop the right attitude and opinion. It is related with MacDougal’s explanation on how new ideas or discoveries in one subject can
influence thought and action in other subject and realize that “nothing ‘just happens’.” MacDougal, 1966: 25
18 The discussion on opinion as a public article published in a newspaper is,
then, compared with the other articles in that newspaper. The characteristic of opinion compared with other articles lies on the authority of the real writer to defend
his authenticity of a text or composition. It means the more edited an opinion will be less authentic that opinion is. In journalism point of view, newspaper has right and
obligation to report news for public. For such social phenomena, differences of opinion, of course, exist MacDougal, 1966: vii. Therefore, a newspaperman or
journalist cannot be expected to determine with absolute certainty whose analysis is correct. That is because an opinion page or rubric in the newspaper is needed and set
to accommodate information that may come from anyone who desires to urge others to take an action with his personal reflection or opinion. So, opinion is not an action
yet, but rather on supplying such personal understanding of a phenomenon as the first step to realistic approach to find the solution.
So, opinion column in a newspaper is provided by the editorial to be the place for anyone including the editor to share their opinion about some hot issues. It
is also suggested that “Newspapers often have an editorial section that features the opinions of editors and, frequently in the same section of the newspaper, an Op-Ed
page that features other opinions.” www.learnnc.orglppages4184 To summarize, there is wide range of possibility for a man to manage his or
her intelligence to create an opinion. An opinion can easily made by having a thought of something happens. In consequent, someone has the freedom or even
responsibility to express this thought or opinion to others, especially when it is related with a controversial issue for whom it may concern and need to take an active
19 participation or action. One way one can express his opinion is through
corresponding in opinion column in a newspaper. This opinion as a personal reflection, then, can function as persuasive action from someone to others to make
the next action towards social phenomena being discussed.
3. Global Warming Topic
Topic is very important for the researcher in relation with the selection of opinions. Global Warming is strongly considered as one of the actual and factual
issue that is still happening until the completion of this study. In fact, it also has become not only controversial subject but also full of responsibility concern for all
people in the world. In accordance with Global Warming topic, it can be defined as “an increase
in the average temperature of the earths atmosphere especially a sustained increase that causes climatic changes.” www.wordnetweb.princeton.eduperlwebwn It is
also important to define the definition of greenhouse effect that causes global warming. According to McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms
2003, greenhouse effect is “the effect created by the earth’s atmosphere in trapping heat from the sun; the atmosphere acts like a greenhouse.” So, it can be concluded
that global warming is the raising of temperature or heat on earth that is caused by the effect of the trapped sun heat inside the earth’s atmosphere.
In deciding Global Warming topic towards an opinion articles, the researcher investigates some criteria that are usually also written along with the opinion articles.
They are title, writer’s name, origin or country, educational background, profession. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
20
4. Related Sources
In order to generate a valid and reliable analysis of noun, the researcher uses two kinds of requisite references. The description will be on the source of English
usage inside the books or dictionaries, the publication time, the content of them in relevance with the information needed for this research, and the organization of the
contents to help the researcher find the valuable information easier. a.
English Grammar books 1
Modern English: A Practical Reference Guide written by Marcella Frank and published by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
This book is the main guide for the researcher to analyze the type, form, and marker of nouns that are found in the opinion articles. There are
some considerations in deciding whether this book is qualified or not. Firstly, this book is the product of a long period of research in modern and traditional
English grammar, current English usage, and general linguistics. Secondly, the concentration of this reference book is on grammatical usages that have
been presented in the simplest possible order -- parts of speech, clauses, and verbal constructions. Thirdly, this book provides description of each part of
speech with all the structural characteristics that can be observed as a word patterns in a sentence such as function, position, form, and the markers that
signal a part of speech Frank, 1972: xv-xvi. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
21 2
English Grammar written by George E. Curme and published by Barnes Noble, Inc.
This second grammar book is used to complete the classification of nouns. With the description of present usage and older usage of English, this
book is considered to widely read and studied. The organization of content is more systematic and comprehensible than others. So, the researcher can
understand the content easier. The description of nouns in this book involves the definition and classification of nouns. Besides, it also describes
compound and derivative nouns in separate category. b.
Dictionaries 1
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, written by Mark D. Licker, et al and published by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
As suggested by its title, this dictionary contains vocabularies on scientific and technical terms. Meanwhile, Global Warming topic is
considered to be related with technical term. Therefore, this dictionary is supposed to determine the right nouns that have relevancy with Global
Warming topic. This dictionary is very important for the researcher to limit the choice of nouns to study.
The researcher suggests this dictionary because each definition of word entry is identified by its field of use. In addition, there are scope of field
page which consists of 104 fields, ranging from general categorizations such as astronomy [ASTRON] and physics [PHYS] to specialized ones such as
engineering acoustics [ENG ACOUS] and naval architecture [NAV ARCH] PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
22 Licker, 2003: vii So, as non-specialist reader, the researcher can easily
choose the nouns by observing the fields that are related closely with Global Warming topic.
2 Collins-Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, written by John
Sinclair, et al and published by HarperCollins Publishers. The second dictionary is also important to compare the frequency of
the nouns found in the opinion articles and in the dictionary. This dictionary is based on a corpus, the Bank of English, which now contains around 400
million of words of English, most of which were spoken or written in the 1990s Sinclair, 2001: ix. The more important thing is that besides providing
information on definition, typical examples, pronunciation, grammar, semantics, and pragmatics, it also gives information on frequency to
complete the entry. In addition, COBUILD was the first dictionary to give information
about the frequency of the headwords by using a banding system. There are five frequency bands in which the most frequent words have five black
diamonds, the next most frequent have four, and so on. Words which appear less frequently, but which still deserve an entry in the dictionary, do not have
any black diamonds. The words in the five frequency bands are very important to learners because they make 95 of all spoken and written
English Sinclair, 2001: x|ii. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
23 According to Sinclair 2001: x|ii, there are some explanation on
these 5 frequency bands. The complete explanations are restated as follows: a
5 bands : Many of the words in 5 bands are the common grammar words and very frequent vocabulary items. There are
approximately 680 words in this band. b
4 bands : There are about 1040 words in this band. The words in those two bands account for about 75 of all English
usage. Therefore, their significance is apparent. c
3 bands : This band consists of approximately 1580 words. By knowing the words in this band can widen the range of topics which
we can talk about. d
2 bands : This band includes more advanced vocabulary and there are about 3200 words in this band.
e 1 band : There are around 8100 words in this band.
The last two bands contain words which we are likely to see less frequently than words in other bands, but which are still important.
B. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
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