Evidential e Book22 HoppleP Structure Burmese

System Unrealized Realized Immediate rnf many onf sany T

i: Evidential

indirect or no experience direct experience implied but assumption can be ‘turned off’ direct experiencing Objectivity non-concrete concrete concrete Referential non-referential referential referential Knownness indefinite definite definite Deictic –space time distal distal proximate Discourse Gestalt foreground background foreground Table 28. Matrix of function dimensions of onf sany and rnf many Multiple systems of information structuring in Burmese follow iconic scenes, which are manifest in the grammatical bounding of clause and phrase nominalizations. These systems are interdependent, and allow speakers to construct their view of the discourse scene in creative and informative ways. Nominalization and other systems semantic roles, mood, aspect, causality, purpose, intentionality, evidentiality, referentiality, deixis, salience of participant roles, nominal incorporation, semantics of the verb indicate a “default setting” in the grammar and the minds of speakers toward resultant state. It is this predisposition that is “co-articulated” with extensive nominalization

4.3.3.4 Person Template

on f sany The postposition onf sany is used also to mark persons or traditional professions where the knowledge is acquired by skill or natural ability. It combines with a noun as a nominal compound, the postposition adopting a strengthened interpretation of a substantive, in this case as ‘the person who does’ the noun. It is interesting to note that if this class of nouns, e.g., ‘war’ or ‘trade’, were interpreted as verbs, syntactically they would represent a simple clause. 90 a. ukefonf kun sany ‘trader’ trade + onf b. ppfonf cac sany ‘soldier’ war + onf c. {nfhonf ai. sany ‘visitorguest’ alien? + onf d. ynmonf panya sany ‘craftsman’ ‘witch’ knowledge + onf e. vufonf lak sany ‘mid-wife’ ‘dealer of a deck of cards’ ‘perpetrator’ hand + onf f. a|mgonf rau:-ga sany ‘sickly person’ disease + onf

4.3.3.4.1 Distribution of

onf sany Pre-Nominally and Post-Nominally The whole complex of functions of both a pre-nominal onf sany topic together with a set of other morphophonemic variants establishes the scope of a wider network of onf sany nominalization, using this designation as the prototype. The particle onf sany, together with its variants establishes the breadth and scope of functions of onf sany nominalization in Burmese. Table 29 displays the different functions pre- and post-nominally for the realis set and the one irrealis member in four different environments. The weight of evidence from the intersecting internal systems argues for a common set of relationships as represented by the rows and a common strategy for those functions distributionally, represented by the columns. That a common set of particles are used in this way and that these roles are nominalizing provides the most substantial evidence for the extensive role of nominalization that is proposed in this study. Pre- and Post- Nominal Particle Function Relating to onf sany Pre-Nominal Post-Nominal General Sense of Particle Meaning Demonstrative Deixis P + N Non-Final [N + P] N Sentential Argument N +P Sentence Final N + P Substantive, Fixed, Fact, Bounded, New Information onf sany That neutral distance onfh sany. Relative clause, fact onf sany Topic, fact onf sany Declarative mood - neutral Possessive Close, Immediate, Tight, Abrupt T i i This close to speaker . creaky tone Possessive relation e i. Possessor e i. Declarative mood, abrupt point Extensible Qualitative, Value, Assumed Information aom sau: Extensible quality, adjectival relation aomf sau when if aom sau: Optative mood, wishes or hopes Realis Far away xdk htui That farther from speaker Irrealis Substantive, Not factual, Possibility, Unknown, rnf many What interrogative rnhf many. Relative clause, possibility rSm hma Topic, non- fact rnf many Subjunctive mood Table 29. Pre- and Post- Nominal functions of onf sany. and other particles In summary, the role of the post-nominal position is to relate the nominal: a N + V – establishes a lexical relation which predicates the whole N, b N + P – establishes a grammatical relation which orients the whole N.

4.3.3.5 The Functions of

aom sau: The functions of aom sau: are discussed in terms of its use in various functions. The purpose is to further expand and support the statements made in table 29. This particle functions a attributively, often classified as an adjectivizer, b terminating an indirect quote, c indicating a string of alternatives, d forming an attributive clause, and e as an optative mood particle. One question for this overview is to answer whether aom sau: indicates a nonrestrictive relative clause, or whether that English distinction has anything to do with Burmese categories. Nonrestrictives typically designate old information, and proper nouns.

4.3.3.5.1 Adjective Status Attributive of a Nominal

According to Okell and Allott 2001 aom sau: is used in an elevated Formal Burmese style, apparently originating in nissaya translations, where aom sau: was used to show the adjectival status of a numeral and other adjectives. The following examples are from Okell and Allott 2001:240. 91 a. wpf ck aom eHeuf tac hku. sau: nam-nak one Clf-thing Nom morning ‘one morning’ b. trsdK: rsdK: aom vl a-myui: myui: sau: lu variety various Nom person ‘all sorts of people’ =CB vltrsKd:rsKd: c. \rwf aom vl mrat sau: lu excel Nom person ‘the excelling man’ or ‘the man who excels’ These examples demonstrate that the head nominal may be a proper noun and known or commonly known information. This might suggest a nonrestrictive relative clause. A comparison of the adjective-like quality with other forms of the verb demonstrates different senses in relation to the verb. Indication is made in 92 where the nominalizer is with a more semantic nominalizing particle. 92 a. \rifh aom mrang. sau: ‘high’ quality V + Nom grammatical b. \rifh onf mrang. sany ‘It’s high.’ predication V + Nom grammatical c. t\rifh a-mrang. ‘height’ or ‘highness’ Nom + V grammatical d. \rifh\cif: mrang. hkrang: ‘the condition of being high’ V + Nom abstract noun Different profiling of the verb, using Langacker’s concepts about nominalization, is indicated by the different nominalizing particles. The different profiles are indicated in the third column. aom sau: contrasts with all the other nominalizers. 4.3.3.5.2 Final Sentence Particle before Verb of Reported Speech Indirect Quote [l hu 93 |Sif bdkh rf u usGef apmf eSH onf [k hrang bui. mai ka. kywan cau hnam sany hu. Shin Bo May S slave smell smell Nom DQ yrmrcefh a\ym aom [l ` pa.ma- ma.hkan. prau: sau: hu i disrespectful speak Nom IQ SFimmediate ‘Shin Bo May spoke disrespectfully, saying “this smells like slavery”, so it is said.’ Example 93 demonstrates a contrastive use of onf sany and aom sau: indirectly contrasting environments. Here onf sany is the nominalizer complementizer for a direct quote, whereas aom sau: is the nominalizer for the indirect quote. The definiteness of a direct quote is indicated by onf sany, as is the evidentiality of factual information vouched for by the speaker. In contrast to the definiteness is the less assertive use of aom sau: for the indirect quote, being more general and less precise about the reported information.

4.3.3.5.3 Marks a V

aom sau: or an N aom sau: as an Alternative String Within a Larger Matrix Clause 94 bf rS ul: aom oef: aom oGm: aom vm aom bhai hma. ku: sau: san: sau: swa: sau: la sau: which RNg cross Nom travel Nom go Nom come Nom r vkyf eSifh awmh` ma. lup hnang. tau. Neg do Imp Rev ‘From now on don’t go trading or traveling anywhere.’ 95 rSm aom rSef aom em r vnf: bl:` hma sau: hman sau: na ma. lany: bhu: wrong Nom correct Nom ear Neg circle Neg wrong aspect correct aspect not understand ‘He couldn’t tell whether it was true or false.’ The effect of aom sau: in these examples is to indicate an aspect of something, a quality or attribute of something else. In 94 and 95 the head nominal of the attributive clause is null. The effect of this is to allow something to be open ended, yet somewhat closed off as well, and then to finally seal it off as a nominal clause. It is perfect for presenting alternatives.

4.3.3.5.4 Attributive Clause to a Nominal V

aom N similar to V onf. N 96 vl juD: rdb q|m orm: wkdh Sifh pum: a\ym aom tcg lu kri: mi.-ba hca.ra sa.ma: tui. hnang. sa.ka: prau: sau: a-hka person big parent teacher worker Pl Acc word speak Nom time ‘When you speak with important people, parents, teachers or workers…’ 97 uav: rsm: udk qkHr aom q|m ka.le: mya: kui hcum-ra. sau: hca.ra child Pl O scold AttNom teacher ‘The teacher who scolded the children…’ 98 awmif ol vf orm: p aom \refrm \ynf ol vl xk taung su lai sa.ma: sa. sau: mranma prany su lu htu. mountain per- son paddy field worker begin Nom Myanmar country per- son people mass peasants the people masses ‘…the masses and the people of Myanmar who were peasants …’ or ‘ the masses and the people of Myanmar such as the peasants…’ The aom sau: nominalized clause occurs with both proper and common nouns. While it could be argued that the head noun ‘time’ in 96 is old known information, still the head-final typology holds. There is another perspective which fits Burmese better, which is that old information is less assertive, less marked, more a quality that is assumed to be a part of an object, whereas new information is typically profiled more sharply, with greater focus and definiteness. The latter is just what onf sany does by profiling a predication. The former is what aom sau: does by inferring an attribute.

4.3.3.5.5 Sentence-Final Marker Indicating ‘Wish’ Optative Mood 99 V

apaom May you V… [ V + cause + realis attribute ] The agent of the causative is unspecified, as is the patient assumed to be the hearer the result is the verb and its complements. The syntax is: null I speaker as agent at some level null to you hearer as patient Result verb + cause particle + Nominalizer Attributive. 100 oGm: yg ap aom Swa: pa ce sau: Go Plt Cs Nom ‘May he go.’ 101 usef: rm yg ap aom kyan: ma pa ce sau: health well Plt Cs Nom ‘May you be healthy.’ The attributive nominalized clause is headed by unspecified ‘you’. Although there never is a pronoun in wishes, second person is implied. If this construction were to have a pronoun, it would be placed grammatically at the end of the phrase as the head noun. Though this type of construction is common with an overt nominal head, it would never be uttered with a speech act participant as the head, although third person would be acceptable. Should second person be the null head, the structure would be: 102 V apaom [ eif ] V ce sau: [nang] Verb + Causative + Attributive Nominal + [ 2 nd person pronoun ] Hypothesizing this as the underlying structure, 101 would then be a comment or a name attached to ‘you’, the addressee; it would then be a relative clause with a null head nominal. This construction would imply that aom sau: is not a final particle, but a modifier, a second position to the end of the sentence. This analysis identified aom sau: as a nominal whose grammatical properties include a less fixed boundary figure 5. It indicates a quality or attributed aspect that is dependent on something else and inferable as given or old information. That element of openness and lack of finality is communicated in its use for the optative mood.

4.3.3.6 Paragraph Functions of

onf sany A brief comment is in order about the role of onf sany at paragraph and discourse levels. Text analysis demonstrates a nominalizing role of chunks of text above the sentence. Interestingly these occur not in the sentence-final position but elsewhere in the sentence. Formal Burmese onf sany nominalization contrasts with another sentence-final particle e.. The orientation of both particles is nominal and deictic. onf sany functions as distal deixis or less proximal and thus within the logic of the text ‘points’ to the argument or ‘refers’ to the argument in the thematic structure; it establishes the matter, the reality, the factuality as the text develops.

e. functions as a closer proximal deixis bringing the