System Unrealized
Realized Immediate
rnf
many
onf
sany
T
i: Evidential
indirect or no experience
direct experience implied but
assumption can be ‘turned off’
direct experiencing
Objectivity non-concrete
concrete concrete
Referential non-referential
referential referential
Knownness indefinite
definite definite
Deictic –space time
distal distal proximate
Discourse Gestalt foreground background foreground
Table 28. Matrix of function dimensions of
onf
sany and
rnf
many
Multiple systems of information structuring in Burmese follow iconic scenes, which are manifest in the grammatical bounding of clause and phrase nominalizations. These
systems are interdependent, and allow speakers to construct their view of the discourse scene in creative and informative ways. Nominalization and other systems semantic roles, mood,
aspect, causality, purpose, intentionality, evidentiality, referentiality, deixis, salience of participant roles, nominal incorporation, semantics of the verb indicate a “default setting” in
the grammar and the minds of speakers toward resultant state. It is this predisposition that is “co-articulated” with extensive nominalization
4.3.3.4 Person Template
on f
sany
The postposition
onf
sany is used also to mark persons or traditional professions where the
knowledge is acquired by skill or natural ability. It combines with a noun as a nominal compound, the postposition adopting a strengthened interpretation of a substantive, in this
case as ‘the person who does’ the noun. It is interesting to note that if this class of nouns, e.g., ‘war’ or ‘trade’, were interpreted as verbs, syntactically they would represent a simple
clause.
90 a.
ukefonf
kun sany ‘trader’ trade +
onf
b.
ppfonf
cac sany ‘soldier’ war +
onf
c.
{nfhonf
ai. sany ‘visitorguest’ alien? +
onf
d.
ynmonf
panya sany ‘craftsman’ ‘witch’ knowledge +
onf
e.
vufonf
lak sany ‘mid-wife’ ‘dealer of a deck of cards’ ‘perpetrator’ hand +
onf
f.
a|mgonf
rau:-ga sany ‘sickly person’ disease +
onf
4.3.3.4.1 Distribution of
onf
sany Pre-Nominally and Post-Nominally
The whole complex of functions of both a pre-nominal
onf
sany topic together with a set
of other morphophonemic variants establishes the scope of a wider network of
onf
sany
nominalization, using this designation as the prototype. The particle
onf
sany, together with its variants establishes the breadth and scope of
functions of
onf
sany nominalization in Burmese. Table 29 displays the different functions
pre- and post-nominally for the realis set and the one irrealis member in four different environments. The weight of evidence from the intersecting internal systems argues for a
common set of relationships as represented by the rows and a common strategy for those functions distributionally, represented by the columns. That a common set of particles are
used in this way and that these roles are nominalizing provides the most substantial evidence for the extensive role of nominalization that is proposed in this study.
Pre- and Post- Nominal Particle Function Relating to
onf
sany Pre-Nominal
Post-Nominal
General Sense
of Particle Meaning
Demonstrative Deixis
P + N Non-Final
[N + P] N Sentential
Argument N +P
Sentence Final
N + P
Substantive, Fixed, Fact,
Bounded, New Information
onf
sany
That neutral distance
onfh
sany.
Relative clause, fact
onf
sany Topic, fact
onf
sany
Declarative mood -
neutral
Possessive Close,
Immediate, Tight, Abrupt
T
i i This
close to speaker
. creaky tone
Possessive relation
e i. Possessor
e i.
Declarative mood, abrupt
point
Extensible Qualitative,
Value, Assumed
Information
aom
sau:
Extensible quality,
adjectival relation
aomf
sau when if
aom
sau:
Optative mood,
wishes or hopes
Realis
Far away
xdk
htui That
farther from speaker
Irrealis Substantive,
Not factual, Possibility,
Unknown,
rnf
many
What interrogative
rnhf
many.
Relative clause,
possibility
rSm
hma
Topic, non- fact
rnf
many
Subjunctive mood
Table 29. Pre- and Post- Nominal functions of
onf
sany. and other particles
In summary, the role of the post-nominal position is to relate the nominal: a N + V – establishes a lexical relation which predicates the whole N,
b N + P – establishes a grammatical relation which orients the whole N.
4.3.3.5 The Functions of
aom
sau:
The functions of
aom
sau: are discussed in terms of its use in various functions. The
purpose is to further expand and support the statements made in table 29. This particle functions a attributively, often classified as an adjectivizer, b terminating an indirect
quote, c indicating a string of alternatives, d forming an attributive clause, and e as an optative mood particle.
One question for this overview is to answer whether
aom
sau: indicates a
nonrestrictive relative clause, or whether that English distinction has anything to do with Burmese categories. Nonrestrictives typically designate old information, and proper nouns.
4.3.3.5.1 Adjective Status Attributive of a Nominal
According to Okell and Allott 2001
aom
sau: is used in an elevated Formal Burmese
style, apparently originating in nissaya translations, where
aom
sau: was used to show the
adjectival status of a numeral and other adjectives. The following examples are from Okell and Allott 2001:240.
91 a.
wpf ck aom eHeuf
tac hku.
sau: nam-nak
one Clf-thing Nom morning
‘one morning’
b.
trsdK: rsdK: aom vl
a-myui: myui: sau:
lu
variety various Nom person
‘all sorts of people’ =CB
vltrsKd:rsKd:
c.
\rwf aom vl
mrat sau: lu
excel Nom person
‘the excelling man’ or ‘the man who excels’ These examples demonstrate that the head nominal may be a proper noun and known
or commonly known information. This might suggest a nonrestrictive relative clause. A comparison of the adjective-like quality with other forms of the verb demonstrates
different senses in relation to the verb. Indication is made in 92 where the nominalizer is with a more semantic nominalizing particle.
92 a.
\rifh aom
mrang. sau: ‘high’ quality
V + Nom
grammatical
b.
\rifh onf
mrang. sany ‘It’s high.’ predication
V + Nom
grammatical
c.
t\rifh
a-mrang. ‘height’ or ‘highness’
Nom + V
grammatical
d.
\rifh\cif:
mrang. hkrang: ‘the condition of being
high’ V + Nom
abstract noun
Different profiling of the verb, using Langacker’s concepts about nominalization, is indicated by the different nominalizing particles. The different profiles are indicated in the
third column.
aom
sau: contrasts with all the other nominalizers. 4.3.3.5.2 Final Sentence Particle before Verb of Reported Speech Indirect Quote
[l
hu
93
|Sif bdkh rf u
usGef apmf eSH onf [k
hrang bui. mai ka. kywan cau hnam sany hu.
Shin Bo May S slave smell smell Nom DQ
yrmrcefh a\ym aom [l `
pa.ma- ma.hkan. prau: sau: hu
i
disrespectful speak Nom
IQ SFimmediate
‘Shin Bo May spoke disrespectfully, saying “this smells like slavery”, so it is said.’ Example 93 demonstrates a contrastive use of
onf
sany and
aom
sau: indirectly
contrasting environments. Here
onf
sany is the nominalizer complementizer for a direct
quote, whereas
aom
sau: is the nominalizer for the indirect quote. The definiteness of a
direct quote is indicated by
onf
sany, as is the evidentiality of factual information vouched
for by the speaker. In contrast to the definiteness is the less assertive use of
aom
sau: for the
indirect quote, being more general and less precise about the reported information.
4.3.3.5.3 Marks a V
aom
sau: or an N
aom
sau: as an Alternative String Within a Larger Matrix Clause
94
bf rS ul: aom oef: aom oGm: aom vm aom
bhai hma. ku: sau: san: sau: swa:
sau: la sau:
which RNg cross Nom travel Nom go Nom
come Nom
r vkyf eSifh awmh`
ma. lup hnang. tau.
Neg do Imp Rev ‘From now on don’t go trading or traveling anywhere.’
95
rSm aom rSef
aom em r vnf: bl:`
hma sau: hman sau: na ma.
lany: bhu:
wrong
Nom
correct
Nom
ear Neg circle Neg
wrong aspect correct aspect
not understand ‘He couldn’t tell whether it was true or false.’
The effect of
aom
sau: in these examples is to indicate an aspect of something, a
quality or attribute of something else. In 94 and 95 the head nominal of the attributive clause is null. The effect of this is to allow something to be open ended, yet somewhat closed
off as well, and then to finally seal it off as a nominal clause. It is perfect for presenting alternatives.
4.3.3.5.4 Attributive Clause to a Nominal V
aom
N similar to V
onf.
N
96
vl juD: rdb
q|m orm: wkdh Sifh pum: a\ym
aom tcg
lu kri: mi.-ba
hca.ra sa.ma: tui. hnang. sa.ka: prau:
sau: a-hka
person big parent teacher worker Pl Acc word speak Nom time
‘When you speak with important people, parents, teachers or workers…’ 97
uav: rsm: udk qkHr aom q|m
ka.le: mya: kui
hcum-ra. sau: hca.ra
child Pl O scold AttNom teacher
‘The teacher who scolded the children…’ 98
awmif ol vf orm: p aom \refrm \ynf ol vl xk
taung su lai sa.ma: sa. sau: mranma prany su lu
htu.
mountain per- son
paddy field
worker begin Nom Myanmar country per- son
people mass peasants
the people
masses ‘…the masses and the people of Myanmar who were peasants …’ or ‘ the masses
and the people of Myanmar such as the peasants…’ The
aom
sau: nominalized clause occurs with both proper and common nouns.
While it could be argued that the head noun ‘time’ in 96 is old known information, still the head-final typology holds. There is another perspective which fits Burmese better, which is
that old information is less assertive, less marked, more a quality that is assumed to be a part of an object, whereas new information is typically profiled more sharply, with greater focus
and definiteness. The latter is just what
onf
sany does by profiling a predication. The
former is what
aom
sau: does by inferring an attribute.
4.3.3.5.5 Sentence-Final Marker Indicating ‘Wish’ Optative Mood 99 V
apaom
May you V… [ V + cause + realis attribute ]
The agent of the causative is unspecified, as is the patient assumed to be the hearer the result is the verb and its complements. The syntax is: null I speaker as agent at some
level null to you hearer as patient Result verb + cause particle + Nominalizer Attributive. 100
oGm: yg ap aom
Swa: pa ce sau:
Go Plt Cs
Nom ‘May he go.’
101
usef: rm yg ap aom
kyan: ma pa ce sau:
health well Plt Cs Nom ‘May you be healthy.’
The attributive nominalized clause is headed by unspecified ‘you’. Although there never is a pronoun in wishes, second person is implied. If this construction were to have a
pronoun, it would be placed grammatically at the end of the phrase as the head noun. Though this type of construction is common with an overt nominal head, it would never be uttered
with a speech act participant as the head, although third person would be acceptable. Should second person be the null head, the structure would be:
102 V
apaom
[
eif
] V ce sau: [nang]
Verb + Causative + Attributive Nominal + [ 2
nd
person pronoun ] Hypothesizing this as the underlying structure, 101 would then be a comment or a
name attached to ‘you’, the addressee; it would then be a relative clause with a null head nominal. This construction would imply that
aom
sau: is not a final particle, but a modifier,
a second position to the end of the sentence. This analysis identified
aom
sau: as a nominal whose grammatical properties
include a less fixed boundary figure 5. It indicates a quality or attributed aspect that is dependent on something else and inferable as given or old information. That element of
openness and lack of finality is communicated in its use for the optative mood.
4.3.3.6 Paragraph Functions of
onf
sany
A brief comment is in order about the role of
onf
sany at paragraph and discourse levels.
Text analysis demonstrates a nominalizing role of chunks of text above the sentence. Interestingly these occur not in the sentence-final position but elsewhere in the sentence.
Formal Burmese
onf
sany nominalization contrasts with another sentence-final particle e.. The orientation of both particles is nominal and deictic.
onf
sany functions as distal
deixis or less proximal and thus within the logic of the text ‘points’ to the argument or ‘refers’ to the argument in the thematic structure; it establishes the matter, the reality, the
factuality as the text develops.
e. functions as a closer proximal deixis bringing the