Obstruents with Clusters Containing Glottal Stops or Glottalized Consonants

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3.4.3.2.1 Obstruents with

ʔ Table 3-16 below lists the obstruents which co-occur with glottal stops. Across the top row of the table the vowels are listed. Each obstruent- ʔ cluster is listed down the left column. The consonants are arranged from the front of the mouth to the back. Preference is given to monosyllabic examples with simple nuclei; however, when these are not available examples which demonstrate direct adjacency of the onset with the initial vowel of the nucleus are given. Stressed syllables are underlined. Table 3-16 Obstruent - ʔ clusters with oral vowels i ɛ a o u tʔ tʔi˥ ‘take’ tʔɛ˦˥ ‘hear’ tʔa˧ ‘distance indicator’ sʔ s ʔɛ˩ ‘after a while’ sʔa˧ngi˦ ‘surpass’ s ʔo˧ ‘he breaks’ sʔui˦ ‘party’ ts︢ʔ ts︢ʔɛ˩ ‘brother’ ts︢ʔa˧ts︢ɛ˦˥ ‘bought’ ts︢ʔo˧ ‘it’s going to break’ ts︢ʔu˧ ‘cultural dress’ ʃʔ ʃʔi˧ ‘grind’ ʃʔa˧ ‘open’ ʃʔo˧ ‘skirt’ ʃʔui˦ ‘ember’ tʃ︢ʔ ʧ︢ʔi˩ ‘drunk’ ʧ︢ʔɛi˩˦ ‘takeǃ’ ʧ︢ʔa˦˥ ‘cargo’ ʧ︢ʔo˧ ‘handfulbundle’ kʔ kʔia˥ ‘there’ kʔa˧ ‘tall’ kʔui˧ ‘here’ There are gaps in the table above. Four of the five vowels each have two blanks; however, there are no vowels which are strikingly underrepresented. In previous comparisons, there was usually a pattern in which the mid vowels were underrepresented, or, minimally, the o had more gaps in its co-occurrence patterns than the other vowels. Recall from §3.3.3 that o only occurred in indigenous morphemes with k, h and ʔ while the remaining oral vowels had very widespread occurrence. In the data in Table 3-16, the o is absent from the stop-glottal clusters, but unlike the corresponding simple onsets, the o occurs with 145 both the fricative and affricate clusters. Gaps appear for i in ts︢ʔ and sʔ. Likewise there are two gaps for ɛ, kʔ and ʃʔ and for u, tʔ and tʃ︢ʔ. The tʔ does not occur with any back vowels while the kʔ does not occur with mid vowels. The kʔ only occurs with a simple nucleus when the vowel is low a; when the vowels are front or back they appear in the form of diphthongs. Three of the four occurrences of back vowels with the glottal clusters appear as diphthongs, only ts︢ʔ appears with the simple u. Table 3-17 summarizes the differences in distribution between obstruent- ʔ clusters and simple obstruents. The shaded cells indicate the co-occurrence of an onset-vowel pair. Data for the simple obstruents is repeated from Table 3-6 above. The numbers 1-4 represent co-occurrences which never or rarely in the case of 5 occur between oral vowels and simple obstruents, but do occur when the obstruent is part of a cluster which ends with the glottal stop. Table 3-17 Distribution of Obstruent- ʔ Clusters vs. Simple Clusters and Oral Vowels Obstruent- ʔ with oral vowels Simple obstruent with oral vowels Cluster i ɛ a o u Consonan t i ɛ a o u t ʔ t sʔ s 1 ts︢ʔ ts︢ 2 ʃʔ ʃ 3 t Σ︢ʔ t Σ︢ 5 4 kʔ k The presence of these five co-occurrences sʔo, t͡sʔo, ʃʔo, t͡ʃʔo and t͡ʃʔɛ that were absent among simple obsturents suggests that the vowel is adjacent to the glottal features which allows them to co-occur, not the obstruent features which would block the co-occurrence. This is an argument in favor of considering the onsets to be clusters and not modified phonemes. 146 Next, the same clusters co-occurring with nasal vowels are investigated. The co-occurrence of obstruent- ʔ clusters with nasal vowels is demonstrated in Table 3-18. Again, the consonants are listed in the same order from the front of the mouth to the back down the left column and the vowels are listed across the top row. Preference was given to monosyllabic morphemes with simple nuclei, but diphthongs and multisyllabic words were used when necessary. Stressed syllables are underlined Table 3-18 Obstruent - ʔ clusters with nasal vowels Cluster ĩ ɛ̃ ã õ ũ tʔ tʔɛ̃˦˥ ‘conjunctivitis’ sʔ sʔɛ̃˧ ‘fits’ ts︢ʔ ts︢ʔɛ̃˧ ‘sprout’ ʃʔ ʃʔã˩ ‘orphan’ tʃ︢ʔ tʃ︢ʔã˧˦ ‘cold’ ʧ︢ʔũĩ˥ ‘chayote’ kʔ kʔĩɛ̃˧ ‘dead’ kʔɛ̃˧ ‘shade’ kʔã˧ ‘single’ ts︢u˧kʔũ˦˩ ‘crab’ In this case, there are only ten co-occurrences between the glottal clusters and the nasal vowels. No examples are available with õ, only one with ĩ, which happens to be in a diphthong, and two with ũ: one is in a diphthong and one in a multisyllabic word. The alveolar consonant clusters only occur with the ɛ̃. This is the first data set in which combinations with ɛ̃ are the most common and the more peripheral vowels are more underrepresented. The postalveolar consonant clusters both occur with ã and the affricate also occurs with ũ, but in a diphthong. Unlike the oral examples, the kʔ occurs with four of the five nasal vowels. In the case of the simple consonants, the distribution with nasal vowels is a bit more complicated. Again, the schematized data from Table 3-9 above is repeated for obstruents which co-occur 147 with nasal vowels in Table 3-19 for comparison with the obstruent-glottal co-occurrence patterns which are schematized from Table 3-18 and appear in the first half of Table 3-19. The shaded blocks represent available co-occurrence of the elements in question with the given nasal vowel. Only the simple consonants which also occur in clusters are included. The numbers 1, 2 and 3 indicate gaps in the co-occurrence of simple obstruents which do occur with the clustered obstruents. Table 3-19 Comparison of ʔ-Cluster vs. Simple Obstruents with Nasal Vowels Obstruent- ʔ with nasal vowels Simple obstruent with nasal vowels Cluster ĩ ɛ̃ ã õ ũ Consona nt ĩ ɛ̃ ã õ ũ t ʔ t 1 sʔ s ts︢ʔ ts︢ 2 ʃʔ ʃ t Σ︢ʔ t Σ︢ kʔ k 3 It is clear that obstruent-glottal stop clusters do not follow the same distribution pattern for co-occurrence with nasal vowels as the simple obstruents. Perhaps this is due to the relative infrequency of the nasal vowels; however, there are three instances in which the nasalized vowel occurs after the glottal stop, but not after the simple obstruent. The t, ts ︢ and k do not occur with ɛ̃ while their clusters with ʔ do. Also recall that ʔ co-occurs with all of the nasal vowels. The examination of the co-occurrence of the obstruent-glottal stop clusters with both the oral and nasal vowels reveals that the co-occurrence patterns of the clusters do not align well with the co-occurrence patterns of the simple consonant onsets. If there are co-occurrence restrictions, such as against o occurring with coronal consonants, or if there is a rule which neutralizes the o when it follows a coronal consonant, then the obstruent-glottal stop clusters violate these if they are interpreted as modified consonants. If, however, the glottal stop of these clusters is allowed to fill a consonant slot in the syllable template, then the o is adjacent to the glottal and no violation occurs. 148

3.4.3.2.2 Sonorants with