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expressions and displays each sentence in which they occur. Diction is defined as a writers choice of words. “A word is the minimal meaningful units of language.”
O’Grady and Dobrovolsky, 1989: 90. Thus, diction has connection with words, which are able to convey meaning for a certain context. Michael Meyer 2006
further proposes that diction is not merely choice of words but also phrases, sentence structures, and figurative language which combine to help create
meaning. The particular words an author uses will affect not only the message the audience receives, but the way in which we interpret that idea Douglas Hunt,
2002. In other words, diction must be suited to the purpose of writing. Anson et al 2000 further say that all writings have a purpose, and the diction used should
coincide with purpose, and be based on audience. In cases like this, diction is considered as a thesaurus. For each word in its glossary, a thesaurus lists
numerous synonyms yet no two words are exactly synonymous. Therefore, when choosing a word to substitute, students must first decide if the new word fits Day
et al, 1984: 16-17.
a. Good Diction in Academic Writing
How a word is finally understood depends on many factors. Standard English has long been used as the guideline to judge speech or writing since
educated speakers and writers of English, business, and media commonly use it. However, judgments about appropriateness are sometimes hard to make because
of the fluid nature of language and the effect of different writing situations. In a larger sense, word choices must be made in the context of a given piece of
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writing, depending on the subject, audience, and purpose. As a result, a word choice that is appropriate in one context may be inappropriate in another. It is
appropriate and inappropriate in terms of whether it supports the purpose of the writing. If the purpose is to present thesis and research so that the reader will find
the writer’s position credible, then the diction used should be appropriate, meaning objective, concrete, and specific. In every kind of writing, it is essential
to choose the best word to express the intended meaning. When writing academic papers, writers are expected to use formal
language rather than the relaxed conversational language they use in everyday situations. Formal English is the level of language appropriate to this context
Brewton et al, 1962: 78. A formal, standard set of rules is employed in academic writing to minimize confusion and misunderstandings since it will be addressed to
an academic audience. Since academic writing is intended for a wide array of people, locally, nationally and, perhaps, even internationally, academic writing
hence requires a more formal diction than everyday talk or journalism Harvey, 2003. Appropriate level of formality is taken into account in academic writing.
Diction refers to the overall selection of language in writing. According to McCrimmon 1984: 271, good diction is the choice of words that allows the
writers to communicate their meaning to their readers. However, the writers sometimes may use longer phrase and complicated words because he or she is
trying to be academic or to show off. In other words, the writers are required to present accurate and precise words for connecting the readers to the subject
matter. Formal, clear, concise, and accurate word is the preferred style for PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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academic writing O’Hare, 1984: 317. The following thus covers categories of appropriate diction in academic writing.
1 Formality
Good diction has to do with choosing words for their level of formality as well as for their connotations Kemmerer, 1997. A writer will tend to use
different sets of language at different levels of formality almost instinctively. Without even being aware of it, many people have been using different levels of
formality in their diction for many years. The only difference is that in writing the writer needs to be conscious of the choices he or she makes. Harder et al 1965:
21 states that in some college writings, as in term papers for advanced courses, the writing is appropriately formal. In other words, a choice that is formal is best
in academic writing. Being aware of maintaining formality covers elements of formality which
needs to be considered, namely, a. Abbreviation
Abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. There are three main kinds of abbreviations: shortenings, contractions, and initialisms.
1. Shortenings Shortening of words consist of the first few letters of the full form and are
usually spelled with a final period when they are still regarded as abbreviations, for example, cont. means continued, in means inch. Sometimes shortenings are
altered to facilitate their pronunciation or spelling, such as bike which means PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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bicycle. Shortening is inappropriate in academic writing as it is less well recognized by large audience Wresch et al, 1988: 186.
2. Contractions Contractions are avoided since they are informal English Harder et al,
1965: 17; Wresch et al, 1988: 186. Weisman 1980: 314 explains that contractions are words from which an unstressed syllable is dropped in speaking.
Specifically, contractions are abbreviated forms in which letters from the middle of the full form have been omitted, for example, Dr. means doctor, St. means
saint or street. Another kind of contraction is the type with an apostrophe marking the omission of letters: cant stands for cannot, didnt stands for did not, and
youve stands for you have. One-word numbers e.g. 12 also should be written out as twelve.
3. Initialisms Initialism is made up of the initial letters of words and pronounced as
separate letters: CIA or C.I.A., NYC or N.Y.C, pm or p.m., U.S. or US. In formal writing, initialism should be put in plain words Weisman, 1980: 314. For
example, CLT should be written as CLT Communicative Language Teaching. b. Pronoun
Pronouns are troublesome in writing because their forms are numerous and irregular and because not all of the various functions they serve in casual talk are
appropriate in writing Harder et al, 1965: 336.
1. Possessive PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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Possessive pronouns are possessive in nature and appropriate in Standard English, for example, Standard English often uses a preposition of rather than a
possessive clitic ‘s as shown in this example below, Report’s contents will better written out as contents of report.
2. Sexist Pronoun Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both
men and women, it is no longer acceptable to do so now as some of the readers may be offended by sexist language McMahan, 1984: 45. Thus, the writer must
avoid a masculine bias in pronouns or other words that indicate gender Memering, 1989: 249. As sexist pronouns are not allowed in academic writing,
the pronouns in academic writing are presented in third person, such as it, they, he or she, etc.
3. Addressing The use of I in academic writing should be avoided as it makes writing sound
too subjective. According to Bradbeer 1999, in academic writing, You addresses the reader and it is better to find another approach. We groups the writer and
readers together. Consider this example, we should all be more aware of... In this sentence, the writer is assumed to share his or her position with the readers.
c. Expression According to Wendel 1999, an academic writer also needs to be aware of
expressions of different sets of language to maintain formality in academic writing. The following will hence cover thorough discussion on slang,
colloquialism, cliché, jargon, idiom, and neologism.
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1. Slang Slang is considered as a variety of language used in certain contexts by
means of which people express their sense of belonging to a particular group within the community, which is not specific to any geographic location and
sometimes is known as street talk Ellis, 2003. Slang often involves the
creation of new linguistic forms or the creative adaptation of old ones. According to Langan 1996: 455, we often use slang expressions when we talk because they
are vivid and colorful. However, slang is usually out of place in formal writing.
Dumas and Lighter 1978: 14 further state that slang is markedly lower in
prestige than Standard English. It is inappropriate then to apply slang in academic writing as academic writing is formal writing which uses Standard English and is
intended for wide range of readers. 2. Colloquialism
Colloquial is generally considered as conversational language Brewton et al, 1962: 80 as colloquialism comprises words that people, educated and
uneducated alike, use when they are speaking together quite informally McCrimmon, 1984: 273. In other words, colloquialism involves everyday
speech patterns that are acceptable in casual conversation. For example, The reason they failed was because they did not understand the questions should be
changed into The reason they failed was that they misunderstood the questions. However, when immortalized in print, these words lack the ability to convey a
clear, universal message, because they may also have inconsistent local interpretations. Although an occasional colloquial word might be effective in a
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particular context, it is not precise enough using colloquialisms in academic writing.
3. Clichés Clichés are old and overused. According to Memering and O’Hare 1984:
318 a cliché is a worn-out word or phrase, some expression so familiar that no longer has any force, such as better late than never, easier said than done, the
bottom line, last but not least, unbelievable, and in this day and age. Clichés are common in speech but are uncommon in writing as the meaning of a cliché is
often confusing. For example, last but not least should be changed into last. 4. Jargon
According to Rugles 1988: 305, jargon is the specialized language of occupations and fields of inquiry. Memering and O’Hare 1984: 318 stated that
jargon covers all specialized vocabulary and terminology which is specific to particular trades, professions, and groups and can be neutral or suggest varying
degrees of contempt Dees, 2003: 174. One example of jargon is The dialectical interface between neo-Platonists and anti-disestablishment Catholics offers an
algorithm for deontological thought. When such language is used in its own sphere, it can make communication more effective, but when it is extended to
other realms, it makes writing more difficult for the average reader to understand. In academic writing the writer must avoid jargon since academic writing
addresses not only a segment but also the whole of society. 5. Idiom
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According to White 1986: 388, idiom is a non-literal informal expression that is peculiar to one language and that cannot be literally translated into another
language. Idioms hence tend to confuse those who are not already familiar with them. Idioms frequently cannot be analyzed grammatically and their meanings
develop through usage rather than through the relationship of the words to each other Brewton et al, 1962: 81. Alter 1979: 169 divides idioms through word
formation. The first formation consists of an adjective and a noun such as soft drink and cold war. The second formation contains verbs and noun, for example,
keep an eye on and be at a lost. Another example is The final assessment is conducted every semester on the dot should be changed into The final assessment
is precisely conducted every semester. 6. Neologism
Memering and O’Hare 1984: 325 state that neologism is a new word or phrase that is created to achieve something that old words do not. Neologisms are
sometimes resisted because they are unfamiliar, perceived as unnecessary, or considered improper or too informal Dees, 2003: 242. Neologisms are generated
by compounding two or more existing words, as in couch potato and downsize. In this example, word, term, or phrase which has been recently created often to apply
to new concepts, or to reshape older terms in newer language form. New words also come from abbreviations such as URL and CEO, blending, e.g. infomercial,
and adding suffixes, such as sexism. d. Personal Judgment or Subjective Words
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Michael Meyer 2006 states that formal diction consists of an impersonal language use. Nice, actually, wonderful, usually, basically, naturally, obviously,
worthwhile, and everybody thinks are perceived as informal since they imply personal judgment of the writer.
2 Accuracy
Diction is vitally important since it affects the accuracy of everything we write and say McMahan Day, 1984: 407. Accuracy is the chief virtue of the
academic writing style. Besides, there is a little value in academic papers that are inaccurate. However, the writer must be careful not to oversimplify or distort the
concept in the process Memering, 1989: 27. a. Errors in Meaning
Vrooman 1967: 55 states that two causes of inaccuracy are: 1. Confused pairs
Some words frequently have different meaning although they are similar in spelling. Consider these following examples: advise – advice, affect – effect,
assure - ensure, continual frequently repeated – continuous without interruption.
2. Words Confused by Analogy Words are sometimes confusing by transference of meaning. The words do
not resemble one another in spelling, but their meanings are often switched such as oral spoken - verbal consisting words, among more than two people –
between two people, error- mistake, and fewer numbers – less degree. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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b. Exaggerated Expressions Exaggerated expressions such as really, definitely, very, and extremely
create a barrier between writer and reader Memering, 1989: 351. Exaggerated expression use of adjective and adverbs weaken vigor and precision. An academic
writer should be specially warned against the overuse of very and definitely. Especially, truly, quite, or others of this type are better advised than very and
definitely Willis, 1966: 190.
3 Clarity
Writing in an academic style does not mean writing to impress, but rather, writing to communicate the writer’s message clearly to an expert audience
Anderson, 2001: 155. Checking clarity means searching for passages that are vague or ambiguous. Vague wording in academic writing will make the audience
think of the writer as indefinite Blicq, 1986: 16. Employing specific words and restricting meaning in this way will increase the sharpness of the image the reader
receives and decrease the chance of misunderstanding and communication failure. a. Synonyms
When writers try to impress their readers by using long words and flowery phrases inappropriately, they create stilted writing. The result is lack of
communication because ideas are obscured rather than clarified by the clutter of words Anson, 2000: 346. Selecting the right word might be difficult as one word
has various different shades of meaning. Synonym is a word of nearly the same meaning as another Harder et al, 1965: 349. They further state that English is
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especially rich in words of slightly different shades of meaning. McMahan 1984: 43 also states that synonyms often have different shades of meaning and nuances.
Sometimes a single word can replace a long phrase. Sometimes a more specific word can replace a general or ambiguous one. Fast might be replaced by rapidly
for example. b. General Terms
In larger measure, finding exactly the right words in writing involves choosing specific terms that will keep the readers’ attention McMahan, 1984:
45. General words name classes and groups of things, while specific words point to a member of a class or group. Both types of words are appropriate in their
respective contexts, but on the whole rely upon specific words, since they express meaning more vividly and more precisely than general ones. Specific words tell
the reader that we are definite while vague generalities imply that we are unsure of ourselves Blicq, 1986: 348. Nouns, such as thing, area, aspect, factor, and
individual are especially imprecise.
4 Concision
Concise writing does not always have the fewest words, but it always uses the strongest ones. In other words, it aims to avoid any words that can be removed
or tighten, clarify, and simplify the writing Memering, 1989: 248. Concision hence deals with wordiness. Writers often fill sentences with weak or unnecessary
words that can be deleted or replaced. According to Procter 2005, eliminating wordiness will increase the clarity and formality of the meaning of the sentence.
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Wordiness is using more words than necessary to express a meaning. It is often a sign of lazy or careless writing. Some sentences can be unclear in a variety of
ways either in the form of redundancy, misused words, and misused terms. Joseph William 2003: 117 proposes five principles of concision in
academic writing. They are deletion of meaningless words, doubled words, redundancy, phrase replacement, and negative form. These principles are easy to
state but hard to follow, because students have to inch their ways through every sentence they write, cut, and compress some words.
a. Meaningless Words Some words are verbal tics, including to be and being, forms that we use
unconsciously. The use of to be and being in a sentence is considered as meaningless since it does not influence the meaning conveyed. Omitting these
forms will improve the quality of the sentences.
b. Doubled Words Another form of concision is doubled words. Using two similar words to
express a meaning will baffle the readers. Omitting doubled words will improve
the virtue of the sentence, such as basic and fundamental and alter or change.
c. Redundancy Gerson states that redundancies are words that express the same thing
2003: 39. There is some common redundancy which is hard to identify because it comes in so many forms Williams, 2003: 117. Every word implies its general
category, so the writer can usually cut a word that names it. For example, There are desirable benefits to be gained from increasing research into English.
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a. Phrase Replacement 1. Padded Verbs
Inadequate range of vocabulary will produce weak verbs. Students may hence combine words to produce the intended meaning. It may also reduce the
quality of academic papers, for example have an expectation is less effective than expect.
2. Formulaic Phrase This wordiness is especially difficult to fix because the writer needs a big
vocabulary and the wit to use it William, 2004: 119. One way of reducing phrases is to look at the use of formulaic phrase. Consider this example:
Weak: Despite the fact that the data were checked, errors occurred. Good: Even though the data were checked, errors occurred.
The example above shows that despite the fact that might be compressed into less words.
b. Negative Form When the writer expresses an idea in negative form, not only does he or
she has to use an extra word such as same which means not different, but he or she also forces readers to do a kind of algebraic factoring. The following expressions
are the same, but the affirmative is more direct, for example, not possible is less direct than impossible and not often is also less direct than rarely.
Based on the overall theories, effective diction in academic writing should be aware of maintaining formality, accuracy, clarity, and concision. Using good
diction in academic writing involves choosing the right word for the meaning desired to be addressed to a wide array of people. To be able to apply formal
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diction in academic writing, students often use a thesaurus. Although, students often use it excessively and incorrectly in their selection of words, knowing that
all synonyms do not mean the same thing that each synonym has a subtle nuance of meaning making it distinct from the other words will help them avoid random
substitutions of words that merely seem to look better.
b. Revising Diction
