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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the researcher would like to discuss some theories and studies that are going to be used as the theoretical base of the research. This
chapter consists of two main parts. They are theoretical description and theoretical framework.
A. THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION
This section presents some meaningful theories that are going to be used as the guidelines and references to conduct the research. Those theories are
Constructivism, Research on Teacher Learning, Cognitive Apprenticeship, Content-Based Instruction, Backward Design Principle, and Reflection Theory.
1. Constructivism
Constructivism is a paradigm in teaching and learning which discusses about the way learners build their knowledge in order to learn. Constructivism is
the philosophical and scientific position that knowledge arises through a process of active construction. Mascolo Fischer, 2005, p. 49. In other words, the
constructivism theory talks about how the learners construct their own understanding towards the learnings they gain. However, constructivism is a wide
area to discuss how the learners learn to learn. Therefore, it is divided into two streams: cognitive constructivism and social constructivism.
a. Cognitive Constructivism
One of the experts who talked about cognitive constructivism was Jean Piaget. Piaget’s theory talks about the way human’s brain receiving and storing
new information. According on Piaget 1975, human’s brain has their own
system in organizing the knowledge related to the learning process. There are three steps in a learning process: assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium.
The first stage is assimilation. Assimilation is the condition where human’s brain will integrate the raw information into the existed organization. The information
should fit itself to the organization that has been constructed before by the brain. The second is accommodation. This stage is the opposite of the previous stage. In
this stage, the organization in the brain will fit the new information. As a result, there will be a new or a reconstructed organization in the brain. Lastly, there is a
term called equilibrium stage. This is the stage when the information would be synchronized between assimilation and accommodation stage.
b. Social Constructivism
Vygotsky 1980 had his own theory about constructivism and it is widely known as social constructivism. Cognitive development is affected by the social
and cultural context of the subject. His theory was constructed based on his observation of ch
ildren’s way of learning. When children have interpersonal contacts, the children will learn something through the interaction, then they will
internalize what they have learned. Furthermore, he also mentioned collaborative learning. It said that the success of learning by collaborating with partners
–can be PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
peers or mentors – will help children gain the most of their knowledge, compare to
when children learn alone. As what has been mentioned before, collaborative learning is a learning
process which is done collaboratively with partners. Furthermore, Dillenbourg 1999 explained that collaborative learning puts more than one person
– it can be a pair, a small group, a class, a community, or a society
– to have a learning experience in many ways. The learning itself can be understood as learning both
in class, such as learning theories or following courses, and out class, for instance problem solving or work practice. Also, the collaboration can be in many ways,
whether face-to-face through meetings or virtually through computer technology. In summary, the words collaborative learning describe a situation in
which particular forms of interaction among people are expected to occur, which would trigger learning mechanisms, but there is no guarantee that
the expected interactions will actually occur. Hence, a general concern is to develop ways to increase the probability that some types of interaction
occur p. 5.
2. Backward Design Principle
Besides teaching, a teacher also has many activities to accomplish. One of the activities is designing curriculum. There are many ways to design curriculum.
According to Wiggins and McTighe 2001, backward design principle is described as the most effective curricular design. Many teachers started with
materials and activities rather than goals or standards p. 8. Therefore, Wiggins and McTighe 2001
recommend backward principle, “One starts with the end–the desired results goals and standards
–and then derives the curriculum from the PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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