6 Principle 6: Reproduction to creation
Learners should be able to move from reproductive tasks given by models tape, teacher, textbook, etc to creative language use. The task should
encourage the learners to be creative. 7
Principle 7: Reflection Learners are free to reflect their difficulties in learning or to reflect how well
they are doing.
5. Developing units of work
a. Steps in developing units of work
There are six steps in developing units of work proposed by Nunan 2004. They are listed as follows.
1 Step 1-Create a number of schema
These schema-building exercises will be the passage to introduce the topic, set the context for the task, and introduce some expressions and key vocabularies.
2 Step 2-Give learners controlled practice
Controlled practice helps learners to understand the introduced target language within the unit before they can use the language by their own in creative way.
3 Step 3-Give learners authentic listening practice
This step will give the students intensive listening to practice. The students will be exposed to authentic or simulated conversation which can combine and
extend the target language from step 2.
4 Step 4-Focus on linguistic elements
The students then can identify some linguistic elements intonation, stress pattern, grammar, etc from the input given before by re-listen to andor re-
read it. 5
Step 5-Provide freer practice Freer practice help students to inovate the target language that they have
learned before beyond the teachers or the materials given. 6
Step 6-Introducing pedagogical task The pedagogical task can be in the form of group work discussion and decision
making task. This task will enable students to build their motivation in completing the last task after they have done the several previous tasks.
b. Grading and sequencing task
According to Richards, Platt and Weber in Nunan 2004, grading is the arrangement of the content of a language course or textbook so that it is
presented in a helpful way. Gradation would affect the order in which words, word meanings, tenses, structures, topics, functions, skills, etc. are presented.
Gradation may be based on the complexity of an item, its frequency in written or spoken English, or its importance for the learner.
Nunan 2004 proposes graded sets of specifications for beginner, pre-
intermediate, and intermediate level learners as shown in Table 2, Table 3, and Table 4. These will be useful to develop graded syllabuses, materials, and units of
work.
Table 2: Social and Interpersonal Language Specifications Beginner
Pre-intermediate High intermediate
- introducing yourself
- greeting others
- asking who other
people are -
talking about your family
- asking
and answering questions
about where you‘re from
- welcoming someone
- offering, accepting
and refusing -
discussing plans -
describing others -
talking about your interest
- discussing
your vacation plans
- expressing
obligation -
discussing personal habits
- talking about past
events -
expressing surprise -
offering congratulations
- varying your
conversational style to suit your audience using
conversational strategies such as seeking turns
and holding the floor
- narrating anecdotes and
personal stories -
expressing approval and disapproval
- expressing
satisfactiondissatisfacti on
Table 3: Informational Language Specifications Beginner
Pre-intermediate High intermediate
- asking about and
stating prices -
asking for and giving directions
- describing procedures
- ordering food and
drink -
asking for additional information
- making reservations
- following a linked
sequence of
instructions -
discussing job
experience and
education -
discussing problems and offering solutions
- taking and relaying
messages -
reporting what others said
- expressing obligation
Table 4: Affective Specifications Beginner
Pre-intermediate High intermediate
- reciting songs and
rhymes -
identifying someone‘s emotional state from
tone and intonation -
listening to reading imaginative texts for
pleasure -
writing short, imaginative text
Willis and Willis 2007 propose ways to sequence tasks. There are identifying a topic, deciding target tasks and deciding facilitating tasks. The first
way is identifying a topic which is relevan t to the students‘ need. Next, deciding
target task is related to activities that reflect the real world of the learners. It means that the use of language in the task should be meaningful. The last,
deciding facilitating task is related to the priming and preparation activities. Activities in which learners are introduced to the content of the target task.
6. Materials Evaluation
