Computer-Assisted reading material to enhance reading skills.

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ABSTRACT

Ratri Wahyuningtyas. 2016. Computer-Assisted Reading Material to Enhance

Reading Skills. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies,

Sanata Dharma University.

Reading skill is essential to the students’ learning improvement in any subjects

they have in school. Reading plays its role in providing understanding of the materials being learnt through written language. However, it is also essential also to provide the students with interesting learning materials that could help them increasing their skill, especially their reading skill. One of the alternatives is through designing the materials adapting Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) theories. There are benefits of

CALL that will contribute to the students’ learning progress. Those are (1) increasing students’ motivation, (2) providing self-access facility, (3) providing attractive

exercises, (4) it could increase the students’ learning autonomy. Based on the fact that there was a need to introduce basic reading skills since the students are in the seven grade and the necessity of having various reading exercises, a study in developing computer-assisted reading materials was conducted.

The study used Research and Development Method which was combined with

Kemp’s Instructional Design in designing the materials. The study was aimed to answer the research question What do the computer-assisted reading materials look like? In order to gather the data, research instruments were used which included an interview checklist, an observation checklist, and a set of questionnaire.

The designed materials consisted of six features, namely warming up, text exploration, vocabulary, exercises, reading skills, and puzzles. Each feature was carefully selected and chosen to accommodate the needs of the students in improving their reading skills which were in line with the principles of teaching reading and the current curriculum as the guidance. The questionnaire results from the experts showed that the mean of the designed materials was 3.8. It meant that the designed materials were able to be used with revising it first before the materials were being implemented to the students. In conclusion, the designed materials needed to be revised first before it was given to the students. Exploration towards the variety of exercises type was also needed for the sake of the materials improvement.

For the students, the learning materials were able to improve their enthusiasm in learning English, especially reading. They found out that learning reading through the help of computer could be very interesting and increase their learning motivation. Various kinds of learning exercises could be one of the reasons why they found out that the learning materials was interesting. Based on the questionnaire result, there were four exercises that the students like most, which were obtained by asking them to rank the exercises they were interested in. The exercises based on the highest to lowest rank were multiple choice, matching, crosswords, and cloze test.

Key words: reading, computer-assisted language learning, CALL, seven grade students, Research and Development

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ABSTRAK

Ratri Wahyuningtyas. 2016. Computer-Assisted Reading Material to Enhance

Reading Skills. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Kemampuan membaca penting dikuasai oleh siswa yang akan menunjang peningkatan pembelajaran siswa pada semua bidang studi yang mereka pelajari di sekolah. Memberikan materi pembelajaran yang menarik bagi siswa juga merupakan hal yang penting dalam kegiatan belajar mengajar sehingga dapat membantu siswa meningkatkan kemampuan mereka terutama kemampuan membaca mereka. Salah satu alternatifnya adalah mendisain materi pembelajaran yang mengadaptasi teori Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Ada beberapa manfaat dari CALL yang bisa memberikan kontribusi dalam kemajuan belajar siswa, yaitu (1) meningkatkan motivasi siswa, (2) siswa bisa mengakses sendiri materi yang ingin dipelajari, (3) menyediakan latihan-latihan yang atraktif, (4) dapat meningkatkan otonomi belajar siswa. Mengingat perlunya memperkenalkan manfaat penguasaan kemampuan membaca pada siswa kelas tujuh dan pentingnya ketersediaan berbagai jenis latihan membaca, sebuah penelitian untuk mendesain materi untuk kelas membaca dengan bantuan media komputer dilaksanakan.

Penelitian ini menerapkan metode Research and Development yang dikombinasikan dengan model desain instruksional yang digagas oleh Kemp. Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mencari jawaban atas pertanyaan utama penelitian yaitu bagaimana desain instruksional dari materi pembelajaran kelas membaca dengan bantuan media komputer? Dalam proses pengumpulan data, instrument penelitian yang digunakan meliputi panduan wawancara, panduan pengamatan kelas, dan kuisioner.

Desain materi terdiri dari enam fitur yaitu warming up, text exploration, vocabulary, exercises, reading skills, dan puzzle. Masing-masing fitur telah diseleksi dan dipilih secara selektif supaya dapat memenuhi kebutuhan siswa dalam meningkatkan kemampuan membaca yang tentu saja sejalan dengan kurikulum yang digunakan oleh sekolah sebagai panduan. Hasil dari masukan para ahli di bidang pengajaran Bahasa Inggris dan IT menunjukkan rata-rata 3.8. Bisa diartikan bahwa desain materi yang telah dibuat dapat digunakan oleh para siswa setelah diperbaiki terlebih dahulu. Eksplorasi materi terutama tentang variasi jenis latihan juga sangat diperlukan untuk meningkatkan kualitas desain materi yang telah dirancang.

Bagi siswa sendiri, materi pembelajaran yang menarik dapat meningkatkan ketertarikan mereka dalam belajar Bahasa Inggris khususnya membaca. Mereka mendapati bahwa kelas membaca bisa menjadi sangat menyenangkan dengan bantuan komputer dan hal tersebut menambah motivasi mereka dalam belajar. Berbagai jenis latihan yang terdapat dalam materi pembelajaran menjadi salah satu faktor yang membuat materi tersebut menyenangkan. Berdasarkan hasil kuisioner, ada empat jenis latihan yang disukai siswa yang diperoleh dengan pemberian peringkat oleh siswa terhadap jenis latihan yang mereka sukai. Urutan jenis latihan berdasarkan ranking tertinggi hingga terendah adalah pilihan ganda, mencocokkan, teka-teki silang dan cloze test.

Kata kunci: membaca, media belajar dengan bantuan komputer, CALL, siswa kelas tujuh, Research and Development

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COMPUTER-ASSISTED READING MATERIAL TO ENHANCE READING SKILLS

A Thesis Presented to

The Graduate Program in English Language Studies for the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum)

in English Language Studies

Ratri Wahyuningtyas 136332049

Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta

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DEDICATION PAGE

When you walk through a storm Hold your head up high And don't be afraid of the dark

At the end of the storm There's a golden sky

And the sweet silver song of a lark Walk on through the wind

Walk on through the rain

Though your dreams be tossed and blown Walk on walk on with hope in your heart

And you'll never walk alone You'll never walk alone

(You’ll Never Walk Alone – Gerry and the Pacemakers)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to Jesus Christ for His blessing and guidance especially during my study and thesis completion.

I would also like to thank Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, MA., my thesis sponsor, for his full guidance and patience during the thesis completion. His feedbacks and suggestions really contributed to my thesis writing progress so I could finish it.

My sincere appreciation goes to FX.Mukarto, Ph.D., Dr. J. Bismoko, Dr. Novita Dewi, MS., MA. (Hons), Ph.D., Patrisius Mutiara Andalas, SJ, S.S., S.T.D.,

and Widya Kiswara, S.Pd., M.Hum for all knowledge shared during my study in English Language Studies.

I would like to thank MG. Suratmi and Pak Dodi for their warm welcome for my research. Their sincere help is always appreciated. I owe all the teachers and students of SMP Maria Immaculata Yogyakarta for their time and support given for my research.

My never ending gratitude goes to my parents, brother, cousins, and friends who always gave their full supports for my study especially for my thesis completion. My deepest gratitude goes to my special one, ang lalaki sa buhay ko, for his great supports and encouragements during the thesis writing and completion.

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TITLE PAGE ………. i

APPROVAL PAGE ……….. ii

DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE ……… iii

DEDICATION PAGE ……….. iv

STATEMENTS OF ORIGINALITY ……….... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN UNTUK PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH ………. vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……….. vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ……….. viii

LIST OF TABLES ……… xi

LIST OF FIGURES ……….. xii

LIST OF APPENDICES ……….. xiii

ABSTRACT ………. xv

ABSTRAK ………. xvi

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ... 1

A.RESEARCH BACKGROUND ... 1

B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION ... 6

C. PROBLEM LIMITATION ... 7

D. RESEARCH PROBLEM ... 7

E. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ... 8

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CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW ... 10

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW ... 10

1. Reading Skill ...….10

2. Teaching Reading ... 18

3. Computer-Assisted Language Learning ... 29

4. Material..………...……….. 32

5. Research and Development ……….………...……… 36

6. Instructional Design ... 38

B. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES... 41

C. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 42

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 46

A. RESEARCH METHOD ... 46

B. RESEARCH DESIGN ... 49

1. Research Participants ... 49

2. Research Instruments ... 50

3. Data Gathering Techniques ... 55

4. Data Analysis Techniques ... 56

C. RESEARCH PROCEDURE ... 57

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 58

A. RESEARCH RESULTS ... 58

1. The Development Process of the Materials ... 59

a. Research and Information Collecting ... 59

b. Planning ... 74

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d. The Experts’ Judgments Results... 81

e. The Analysis of the Experts’ Judgments Results ... 86

f. Final Product Revision ... 89

B. DISCUSSION ... 108

1. Features on the Designed Materials ... 108

2. Presentation of the Designed Materials ... 113

3. Administering the Designed Materials ... 114

4. The Contribution of the Designed Materials to the Students’ Improvement 116 CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 119

A. CONCLUSIONS ... 119

B. SUGGESTIONS ... 123

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1. Blueprint of the Questionnaire and Interview Checklist ………..… 52

Table 4.1. Preliminary Questionnaire Results on Current Reading Class Condition .... 67

Table 4.2. Preliminary Questionnaire Results on the Use of Computer in the Reading Class ……….………. 69

Table 4.3. Preliminary Questionnaire Results on the General Comments of the Reading Class ………..… 71

Table 4.4. Preliminary Questionnaire Results on Students’ Expectation of Their Reading Class ………..… 73

Table 4.5. Competency Standard and Basic Competences of reading for the Seventh Grade Students Semester 2 (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2006) …... 75

Table 4.6. The Learning Topics ………. 75

Table 4.7. The Learning Indicators …………...……… 76

Table 4.8. The Subject Contents ……… 77

Table 4.9. The Learning Activities ………...…………. 77

Table 4.10. The Background of the Respondents ……….. 82

Table 4.11. The Results of Experts Judgments ………...……….. 83

Table 4.12. The Revision of Grammatical Mistakes ……….………… 90

Table 4.13. The Revision of Incorrect Diction ……….………. 90

Table 4.14. The Results of Post Design Survey ………...……. 95

Table 4.15. Post Design Questionnaire Result: Close Ended Questions ………..…... 105

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Curriculum Cycle (Hammond, et al, 1992)………..……… 29

Figure 2.2. The Writer’s Instructional Design Model………...……… 45

Figure 4.1. The Error Scoring System ………...……… 91

Figure 4.2. The Revised Version ……….………….. 92

Figure 4.3. Old Version Lay Out ……….……….. 93

Figure 4.4. Revised Version Lay Out ………...…………. 94

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Letter from the School ………...………. 128

Appendix 2. Needs Analysis Questionnaire and Interview Blueprint ………. 129

Appendix 3. Needs Analysis Classroom Observation Blueprint ………. 136

Appendix 4. English and Instructional Design Expert Validation Blueprint ……….. 137

Appendix 5. Information and Technology Expert Validation Blueprint ……….…… 140

Appendix 6. User Validation Blueprint ……….……….. 141

Appendix 7. Needs Analysis Questionnaire Form ……….…. 144

Appendix 8. Needs Analysis Interview Form ………. 147 Appendix 9. Needs Analysis Classroom Observation Form ………...…… 148

Appendix 10. English and Instructional Design Expert Questionnaire Form …...….. 149

Appendix 11. Information and Technology Expert Questionnaire Form ….………... 152

Appendix 12. User Validation Questionnaire Form ……… 154

Appendix 13. Interview Transcript ……….. 157

Appendix 14. Observation Notes ………. 159

Appendix 15. Needs Analysis Questionnaire Results ………...………….. 161

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Appendix 17. Information and Technology Expert Questionnaire Results ………… 172

Appendix 18. Users’ Feedback Questionnaire Results………...……… 174 Appendix 19. User’s Feedback on Open Question……….. 177 Appendix 20. Descriptive Statistics of Needs Analysis Questionnaire Results …..… 179

Appendix 21. Descriptive Statistics of English and Instructional Design Expert

Questionnaire Results ………..…… 180

Appendix 22. Descriptive Statistics of Information and Technology Expert

Questionnaire Results ……….. 182

Appendix 23. Descriptive Statistics of Users’ Feedback Questionnaire Result.……. 183

Appendix 24. T-Test Calculation Result ………. 184

Appendix 25. Syllabus of English Subject for Seven Grade Students of

Junior High School ……….. 185

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ABSTRACT

Ratri Wahyuningtyas. 2016. Computer-Assisted Reading Material to Enhance

Reading Skills. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies,

Sanata Dharma University.

Reading skill is essential to the students’ learning improvement in any subjects they have in school. Reading plays its role in providing understanding of the materials being learnt through written language. However, it is also essential also to provide the students with interesting learning materials that could help them increasing their skill, especially their reading skill. One of the alternatives is through designing the materials adapting Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) theories. There are benefits of CALL that will contribute to the students’ learning progress. Those are (1) increasing

students’ motivation, (2) providing self-access facility, (3) providing attractive exercises, (4) it could increase the students’ learning autonomy. Based on the fact that there was a need to introduce basic reading skills since the students are in the seven grade and the necessity of having various reading exercises, a study in developing computer-assisted reading materials was conducted.

The study used Research and Development Method which was combined with Kemp’s Instructional Design in designing the materials. The study was aimed to answer the research question What does the computer-assisted reading materials look like? In order to gather the data, research instruments were used which included an interview checklist, an observation checklist, and a set of questionnaire.

Key words: reading, computer-assisted language learning, CALL, seven grade students, Research and Development

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xvi

ABSTRAK

Ratri Wahyuningtyas. 2016. Computer-Assisted Reading Material to Enhance

Reading Skills. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma. Kemampuan membaca penting dikuasai oleh siswa yang akan menunjang peningkatan pembelajaran siswa pada semua bidang studi yang mereka pelajari di sekolah. Memberikan materi pembelajaran yang menarik bagi siswa juga merupakan hal yang penting dalam kegiatan belajar mengajar sehingga dapat membantu siswa meningkatkan kemampuan mereka terutama kemampuan membaca mereka. Salah satu alternatifnya adalah mendisain materi pembelajaran yang mengadaptasi teori Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Ada beberapa manfaat dari CALL yang bisa memberikan kontribusi dalam kemajuan belajar siswa, yaitu (1) meningkatkan motivasi siswa, (2) siswa bisa mengakses sendiri materi yang ingin dipelajari, (3) menyediakan latihan-latihan yang atraktif, (4) dapat meningkatkan otonomi belajar siswa. Mengingat perlunya memperkenalkan manfaat penguasaan kemampuan membaca pada siswa kelas tujuh dan pentingnya ketersediaan berbagai jenis latihan membaca, sebuah penelitian untuk mendesain materi untuk kelas membaca dengan bantuan media komputer dilaksanakan.

Kata kunci: membaca, media belajar dengan bantuan komputer, CALL, siswa kelas tujuh, Research and Development

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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter is the opening of the study being conducted by the writer. It will explain anything related to the background of the study, problem identification, problem limitation, research problem, research objectives, and research benefits. Each sub chapter will elaborate the explanation thoroughly.

A. RESEARCH BACKGROUND

The need of using English is in a high demand during latest decade as English is now known as lingua franca. To support the globalization ahead, non native countries realize that mastering English would give them benefits to enter the core of global world. Many efforts and plans are prepared by each country especially the developing ones to get themselves in into the heart of the global trading. One of the effective efforts which give long term benefit for the country in preparing themselves for global world trading is by teaching their pupils English. As a result, English is taught in schools throughout the world to prepare people facing the challenge of globalization era. Graddol (2006) suggests that the target model of teaching English as lingua franca is to form a fluent bilingual speaker who preserves his national identity in terms of accent and who has the skills to negotiate with other non natives. For this aim, schools are considered as the best place to introduce English to non native students and make them use it. Graddol (2006) also adds “the role of education in school is now seen as to provide the generic skills needed to acquire new knowledge and specialist skills in

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the future”. He also provides reasons why English is introduced to younger learners. The reasons are to make sure that the learners have longer time to master the language and to avoid overloaded material since secondary schools are demanding already (Graddol, 2006). As a result, in non native countries, English is taught since Elementary School or even Kindergarten to maximize the knowledge absorption and make the students get used to use English in early age. Indonesia belongs to the countries teaching English for young learners.

In Indonesia, English is one of core subjects since Junior High School. It becomes important since English is included in the Curriculum as one of the subjects to be tested in National Exam. It means, students’ knowledge and ability in using English appropriately is tested and converted as mark which is written in their certificate to notify that they pass Junior High School. There are four skills that the students have to learn in order to master English, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. According to Hirsch, Jr. (2003), reading and writing is important as a means to possess body knowledge. When a student knows how to read, it would be easier for them to understand any material given by their teachers. As stated also by Wallace (1992) that reading requires response from the readers which means readers are aware of some options. It gives proof that reading will be beneficial in supporting their learning process. Then, reading becomes one of the important factors for students to master anything including English.

Problems in understanding English are also experienced by Junior High School (JHS) students. There are two major problems in learning English. First problem is on their ability to master word knowledge. As stated by Texas

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Education Agency (2011), that to help students developing their reading vocabulary needs more strategies; it suddenly becomes the task of the teachers in order to solve the first problem. Students’ vocabulary mastery is definitely needed to support their effort in learning English. Second problem lies on their grammar mastery. To help them understanding English text, there is a need to improve their grammar mastery. Those two problems need to be solved by giving more exercises so that it would give beneficial impact to students’ reading understanding. It matches with what is being proposed by Jenkins, Fuchs, van den Broek, Espin, & Deno (2003) that there are five elements of reading comprehension, namely metacognition, knowledge, vocabulary, passage context, and social context. Metacognition refers to the students’ awareness and regulation of one’s thinking and the application of problem solving skills. It suggests students to see reading as problem solving activity instead of words recognition (Walczyk, 1994). Knowledge and passage context enhance students’ ability in understanding the passage since through existing knowledge possessed by students, they will be able to relate it with the context well. Vocabulary plays important role in the process of reading understanding. By having strong vocabulary mastery, students will be easier in identifying words in their reading passage and quite faster in constructing meaning.

There are many teaching model that could be used to teach reading and one of the teaching models is Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL). What should be included in CALL, as stated by Beatty (2003), it accommodates its changing nature in any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language. So in CALL, computer is used to support the

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teaching learning process which is also, could help teachers in providing learning material for the students to enhance their language mastery.

There are two reasons why CALL is selected in this study. First, it supports learner autonomy. As what has been stated by Egbert (1993), that there are conditions of optimal language learning environment that should be attained by teachers to maximize the learning output. The conditions of optimal language learning environment are 1) learners have the opportunity to interact and negotiate, 2) learners interact in the target language with an authentic audience, 3) learners are involved in authentic tasks, 4) learners are exposed to and encouraged to produce varied and creative language, 5) learners have enough time and feedback, 6) learners are guided to attend mindfully to the learning process, 7) learners work in an atmosphere with an ideal stress/anxiety level, and 8) learners’ autonomy is supported. The idea of using CALL is to improve learner’s autonomy, involve them with tasks and atmosphere fit to their stress level, and provide them with beneficial feedback. Rude (1986) stated that most Computer-Assisted Instruction use wider mainframe as their attempt to improve students achievement. This will support the usage of CALL in teaching learning process. More statement proposed by Rude (1986) that computers used in the classroom can be maximized to enhance reading instruction in various ways. Second, students are interested in learning using computer. It is supported by statement from Spencer and Baskin (1983), Merton (1983) and Fisher (1983) as cited by Rude (1986) that children show high enthusiasm when they work with computers and their academic motivation is usually increased. This is based on observation done by the researchers before which shows that students were eager to work on

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the exercises given using computer. It reflects the conditions of optimal of language learning environment which will also help teacher to deliver the material better.

In CALL, learners are required to be able to operate computer since the main media to communicate in computer based language learning. Computer based language learning could be the alternative of teaching model which emphasizes on the effectiveness and efficiency of the teaching learning process itself. By involving media, it is hoped that learners could be more encouraged in improving their English skills, especially their reading skill. There are benefits of using CALL that would be very beneficial for the improvement of the students (Prathibha, 2010). First, it could increase the students’ motivation. There are many activities that could be done using computer; one of those is playing games. Various options of activities in learning using computer are believed could increase the students’ motivation and self confidence. Second, computer offers self-access facility. It means the students have the full authority to access the learning material and could adjust to their learning needs. Third, computer provides more attractive exercises. By using the computer, the teacher could create exercises a more attractive aspect by means of colors, various letter styles, and also animated pictures. Fourth, it could increase the students’ learning autonomy. Learning with the help of computer has given a full access to the students in learning the material they want to learn. Moreover, in CALL teacher’s role undergoes changing. Teacher plays role as facilitator and is free to work with individuals. This really supports the students’ learning autonomy.

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The focus of the study is to elaborate theories of using CALL in improving JHS students’ reading mastery. The theories will be used as the foundation in constructing the computer-assisted language learning model so that it could help them in improving their reading mastery. Progress of the students is expected to discover also in the study. CALL activities that will be used in the model will include any task produced using Hot Potatoes and Eclipse, while the material are designed using Page Breeze.

B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

There are two problems found as the basis of the research conducted. First, reading skills are definitely needed for the students in order to master English. In fact, the seventh grade students are not yet getting more familiar with the basic reading skills they need. As a result, introducing students to the reading skills when they are still in their first year of Junior High School will give more benefits to their progress of understanding English. Hence, the problem appears when the teaching reading skills doesn’t become the urgency in the current curriculum. The syllabus for the seven grade students doesn’t include the teaching of reading skills. To accommodate the needs, learning material consisting the teaching of reading skills become the alternative way. Second, the students need variety of reading exercises. To teach the students how to read and practice the reading skills they have learnt, having regular practice is a must. Moreover, providing adequate reading practice will be the best solution if the teacher really wants to encourage the students to be strategic readers.

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To make the reading material interesting, an alternative teaching media is proposed. Computer-Assisted Language Learning is used to give new experience to the students in learning reading skills. Based on this idea, it is then decided to design an instructional reading material for seventh grade of Junior High School students to improve their reading skills using computer-assisted language learning.

C. PROBLEM LIMITATION

The limitation of the research will be about to design computer-assisted language learning model to enhance reading skills for Junior High School students. It will provide learning model for seven grades of Junior High School students applying Curriculum 2006 to improve their reading skills. Seven grades students of Junior High School are selected as the participants of the study for two reasons. First, they will have more time to prepare for the National Examination where they could apply the reading skills they learnt. Second, it is expected to give beneficial advantage to teach them to be a strategic reader since they are in the seventh grade. Moreover, the model will use CALL in which the activities are created using Hot Potatoes and Eclipse and presented using Page Breeze.

D. RESEARCH PROBLEM

The research will try to answer research question below.

What does the computer-assisted reading material to enhance reading skill look like?

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E. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

There are two objectives of this research. First, it is to design and develop computer-assisted reading model to improve reading skills for seventh grade of Junior High School students. The model is designed according to their needs and combined with learning objectives that they have to achieve according to Curriculum 2006. Second, it is to give detail explanation on the features of CALL that could help JHS students improving their reading skills. The construction of CALL model will consider the theory and nature of teaching reading, CALL and also use Curriculum 2006 as the guideline. The objectives stated in Curriculum 2006 and problems in learning English become the basic in designing the learning material since the research is conducted to find the best way out to solve students’ problem by providing learning model that could accommodate them to achieve higher understanding of English.

F. RESEARCH BENEFITS

It is hoped that the research could give alternatives of teaching learning model which could enhance students’ English mastery. Students could experience different learning activity that could raise their curiosity and stimulate their problem solving activity through various reading activities. Moreover, it is hoped that the research could be a prototype of computer-assisted language learning for teaching reading. The prototype could be developed and adjusted to the learners’ need. There is a hope that further researchers could transform it into open source model so that more people would get the benefit of the learning model. Hence, it

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is hoped that the research could widen the perspectives of the researchers and also English teachers in providing interesting learning model which aims to improve students’ English mastery especially their reading mastery.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The second chapter will describe the theoretical review, theoretical framework and hypothesis of the study. In theoretical review, all the concepts used by the writers will be elaborated in order to find the universal truth. Then, the relation of each concept to the study will be explained in the theoretical framework. In short, chapter two is the writer’s plan to discover the empirical truth.

A.THEORETICAL REVIEW

The first part of this chapter reveals all the theories used in the study. It consists of four parts, those are reading skill, teaching reading, computer-assisted language learning, and instructional design. Each part will elaborate the theories in details.

1. Reading Skill

The description of reading skill theories being used in this study consists of four parts. Those are definition of reading, purposes of reading, models of reading process, and accessing reading text. The complete description will be presented in the following paragraphs.

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a. Definition of Reading

There are some definitions of reading used in the study. According to Anderson as cited by Nunan (2003), reading is a receptive skill, in which readers receive information from the writer in the text they read. It is called receptive skill because readers do not produce anything like in speaking or writing. Readers just need to undergo a process of understanding text being read. It is supported by the statement from Eskey, as cited in Farrell (2009) “reading is a process of obtaining information from a written text that does not involve the activity of converting written language into spoken language”.

Anderson (as cited in Nunan, 2003: 68), defines that reading is a process of understanding the text they read and combine it with their own background knowledge to build meaning. Wallace (1992) also states that in a reading process, readers are expected to have some attempts in order to understand the passage being read. The attempts could be readers’ efforts in recalling their background knowledge to understand the passage. Moreover, Hedge’s (2000) suggestion that there is a dynamic relation between text and readers’ attempts to make meaning of the text, adding some proofs that readers really need to do something to make the text meaningful to them. Reading also involves the ability to recognize sentence structure and combine it with readers’ background knowledge. As stated by Grabe and Stoller (2002), reading is an interactive process which involves the activity of analyzing the structure of the sentence and the activity to recall information from long-term memory as background knowledge.

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b. Purposes of Reading

Reading activity is always supported by a purpose. As stated by Grabe and Stoller (2002), that once we begin to read, there are some numbers of decisions that we are going to make. It is whether we are going to read the whole passage or stop it when we think we already get the information needed. Grabe and Stoller (2002) propose that there are four main purposes of reading. First, reading to search for simple information and reading to skim. It is also what we know as the common reading ability, that when we read, we suppose to look for specific information from the text. Usually, readers will scan for specific information they need in the text. It would be time saving and more efficient compared to if readers have to read the whole text before finally decide which information that they need. The example could be when readers are looking for particular year in the text, specific year or address within the text. The basic method is just the same for skimming. In skimming, readers will use the combination strategies of guessing where the information needed is located then followed by using the comprehension skills they have to generate the idea (Grabe and Stoller, 2002).

Second, reading to learn from texts. According to Grabe and Stoller (2002), reading to learn from texts required readers to (1) remember main ideas and details elaborated in the main and supporting ideas of the text, (2) recognize and build rhetorical frames which is organized the information in the text, (3) relate the text to their knowledge base. Even though it comes with slow pace of reading, reading to learn is believed to be able to strengthen readers’ ability of inferencing their background knowledge to the texts they are reading. Third, reading to integrate information, write and critique texts. When readers are in the process of

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integrate information, they need to be able to decide which one is needed and which one is not really needed. They will build the skills on what information to integrate and how to integrate it to reach their goals (Grabe and Stoller, 2002). For the aim to write and to critique texts, readers are definitely needed to know what kind of supportive and conflicting material that will be useful for their writing process. Moreover, both purposes usually represent academic tasks that require readers’ ability to integrate information.

Fourth, reading for general comprehension. General reading comprehension is the most basic purpose of reading. Yet, it supports other reading purposes being discussed before. However, general reading comprehension is more complex than what we ever imagine. It compromises very rapid and automatic processing of words, well-built skill in generating the main ideas, and efficient coordination of other processes within very limited time (Grabe and Stoller, 2002). Fluent readers will absolutely meet the requirements but it would be hard for non fluent readers. There are many requirements that they need to accomplish for being a fluent reader. It demands processing efficiency but once one could master general reading comprehension, it would be easier for them to grasp meaning and ideas of any other reading texts and genre with varied length.

c. Micro skills in Reading

According to Brown (2007), each skill consists of micro skills. In reading, the micro skills are as follows (1) distinguish among graphemes and orthographic pattern of English, (2) preserve chunks of language of different length, (3) process

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writing at the efficient rate of speed to meet the purpose, (4) recognize a core of word, and interpret the word order pattern and its significance, (5) identify grammatical word classes, systems, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms, (6) identify cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in signaling the relationship between and among clauses, (7) identify the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their significance for interpretation, (8) using world knowledge to infer inexplicit context, (9) identify the communication function or written text according to form and purpose, (10) identify literal and implied meaning.

In the study, the micro skill which is included in the learning material is mostly in identifying the communication function or written text according to form and purpose. The material provided the information on two kinds of text and the students learn to identify the function of the text in communication. Moreover, the students also need to identify also the form and purpose of the text in order to maximize the outcome.

d. Models of Reading Process

There are three models of reading process according to Anderson, as cited in Nunan (2003). The first model is bottom-up model. This model requires learners to start the reading process from the very beginning phase. It will start with the fundamental basic of sound and letter recognition, and also morpheme. Then, it will be continued with the word recognition, sentence and closed with the large

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one. According to Hedge (2000), bottom-up model used to explain the decoding of the letters, words, and other language features.

In bottom-up model, the way readers understand the text they are going to read is in a very slow pace. They build meaning or translating word by word and add interfere using their background knowledge. As what is also stated by Grabe and Stoller (2002) that their recognition will be started from the very basic. It will be from letter by letter for word recognition, word by word for sentence recognition and sentence by sentence for text recognition.

The second model is top-down model. In top-down model, learners’ background knowledge is needed in order to understand the text given. Learners’ background knowledge is believed could give contribution in understanding the text they are reading. The activity focuses on the understanding of the learners toward the text being read. Moreover, Hedge (2000) also states that the top-down process is used to explain the application of prior knowledge to create meaning of an existing text.

The idea of top-down model is the readers’ expectation toward the text being read. It is assumed that they already have information and facts related to the text and they are going to confirm or reject the expectations (Grabe and Stoller, 2002). It is done by doing a kind of general monitoring mechanism in which the readers will direct their eye to the potential place where they could find those specific information needed.

The last model is interactive model. Interactive model assume that both models, bottom-up and top-down model, could be beneficial in comprehending a text. Readers could take useful ideas from bottom-up model and combine it with

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useful perspective from top-down model. This is the integration of bottom-up and top-down model. The focus of this model is to invite readers to use the perspective of bottom-up model and combine it with the key concepts of top-down model (Grabe and Stoller, 2002). They will start with word recognition, but in a fast and efficient way. However, strong background knowledge is highly needed to support the readers to understand what the text is trying to convey.

In practice, readers will be given short reading passage to teach them specific reading skills and strategies. Moreover, they will also be given longer reading passage to practice their reading strategies. In short, fast words recognitions technique from bottom-up model is very beneficial but background knowledge contributes much in understanding the text, as in inferencing and predicting what will happen next in the text.

d. Accessing Reading Text

Wallace (1992), states that there are three ways to help learners relating their existing knowledge to the text that they are going to read. It is supported by Farrell (2009), by stating that the teachers’ goal is to develop strategic readers and the idea is in line with Wallace’s thought. The first activity is Pre-reading Activities. In this activity, learners are given questions from the text which requires learners to answer it. The activity also provides learners with task in order to prepare them with the linguistics, cultural or conceptual difficulties. Moreover, it also provides them with vocabulary tasks. In short, the activities in pre-reading activities functions as an entrance for them to the reading text. Farrell (2009) suggests the idea to help students building their schema about the text that

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will be read. He proposes four activities that would be beneficial in order to activate relevant background knowledge. Those are (1) word association which determine what prior knowledge that students could bring before they read the text, (2) direct experience which focuses on engaging students in the real experience in building their background knowledge, (3) cinquain which requires students to write five lines poem that reflects the affective and cognitive concept as a response to the new concept, and (4) prediction which is linked to the strategy to activate prior knowledge.

The second activity to access content is called while-reading activity. It is aimed to encourage learners to be active, flexible, and reflective readers. In this phase, a reading will be given to the learners along with a set of task to check their understanding of the text being read. Farrell (2009) suggests three activities to assist them in understanding the text being read. The first activity is prediction which aims to develop students’ ability to read critically and reflectively. The second activity is questioning which invites students to ask questions related to the text they are reading. The last activity is summarizing which is categorized as a reading strategy that is used to get the gist of the text being read (McEwan, as cited in Farrell (2009)).

The last one is post-reading activities. It consists of activities that could function as the follow up action of the text being read. It is usually in the form of comprehension questions, while other follow up activity can be in the form of writing or a role play. The activities in post-reading activity should be motivated by the text genre, the context of learning, and also learner’s purpose.

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2. Teaching Reading

There are four parts provided in presenting the teaching reading theories being used in the study. First, the study presents the principles of teaching reading. Second, reading comprehension strategies are presented in details. Third, it will present about Curriculum 2006 in teaching learning process. Fourth, it will describe the learning process in Curriculum 2006.

a. Principles for Teaching Reading

1) Anderson’s Principles for Teaching Reading

Anderson (as cited by Nunan, 2003), states that there are eight principles of teaching reading. The first principle is to exploit the reader’s background knowledge. Background knowledge includes experiences that bring readers to the text, such as life experience, and educational experience. Background knowledge gives big influence in leading readers to the text and improving readers’ reading comprehension. To enhance readers’ reading comprehension, the teacher has to activate their background knowledge by setting goals, asking questions, making prediction, and teaching text structure. The second principle is to build a strong vocabulary base. Vocabulary is the basic need for the readers to build meaning of English words or texts. In order to understand the text, the readers need to know vocabularies related to the text. If the readers have strong vocabulary base, it will be easier for them to understand the text.

The third principle will be to teach for comprehension. The main part of reading process is comprehension. According to Grabe and Stoller (2002) ”reading comprehension is the ability to understand information in a text and

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interpret it appropriately.” It is supported by Farrell (2009) who says “reading comprehension is basically the English Language Learners’ ability to construct meaning from the text through combination of prior knowledge and previous experience with the topic, the information in the text, and the stance the reader takes in relationship to the text”. However, the teacher needs to teach comprehension and then monitor it. Teaching comprehension relates to the readers’ ability to discuss with the teacher or friends what strategies they use to comprehend the text.

The fourth principle is to work on increasing reading rate. Increasing reading rate means that there should be a balance in improving students’ reading rate and developing their comprehension skills. The teacher does not only focus on the accuracy but also fluency. The teacher also has to teach students to reduce their dependence on dictionary. The students have to spend more time on analyzing the content and discussing it with their friends. The next principle is to teach reading strategies. In order to be successful readers, the readers have to know strategy of reading itself. However, knowing the strategy is not enough. They have to know how to use and integrate strategies in their reading process.

Principle number six is to encourage readers to transform strategies into skills. According to Anderson (as cited by Nunan, 2003:77), “strategies can be defined as conscious actions that learners take to achieve desired goals or objectives, while a skill is a strategy that has become automatic.” Readers should be introduced to reading strategies in their reading process. When they use the strategies unconsciously, they move strategies into skill. The next principle is to build assessment and evaluation into your teaching. Assessment and evaluation

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can be used to measure the students’ progress in their reading class. The assessment can be both qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative assessment includes information from reading comprehension test and reading rate data. Quantitative assessment includes information from reading journal responses, reading interest surveys, and responses to reading strategies checklist.

The last principle is to strive for continuous improvement as a reading teacher. Reading teacher should view themselves as facilitators and help the readers to find what works best. The teacher needs to understand the nature of reading process so that they can help the readers to understand the text.

2) Farrell’s Principles for Teaching Reading

Farrell (2009) also proposes that there are eight principles for teaching reading. The first principle is to reflect on reading. The main point of this principle is to invite teachers to reflect on their reading process first. They are expected to reflect in the reading behavior and reading process they experience when they read something. Then it would be followed by reflecting on how they teach reading to their students through the help of fellow teachers to observe how they teach reading in the class. The essence of this principle is to encourage teacher to place themselves as readers first and notice on how they understand before they decide what kind of reading class they will bring their students into.

The second principle is to teach fluency and comprehension. There are two commonly purpose of reading, those are reading for pleasure and reading for general comprehension. General reading comprehension requires readers to be

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able to gain information from the text being read in which they have to master the ability of understanding text and interpret it. As stated by Farrell (2009), reading fluency is actually closely related to comprehension. As a result, the demand for the teacher is not only to focus on the instruction to increase students’ reading strategies, but also to make use of the ability to recognize text structure to build both reading fluency and comprehension.

The third principle is to teach reading strategies. Reading strategies refer to how the readers make sense of what they read and what they don’t understand from the text (Farrell, 2009). It is the teachers’ responsibility to introduce students to understand and use reading strategies that would be beneficial for them in the process of understanding the text without removing the possibility of having discussing and practice of reading strategies during the reading activity. In addition, teacher is greatly hoped to develop strategic readers rather than to only teach individual reading strategies. The fourth principle is to teach text structures. In this principle, the big challenge for the teachers is to teach their students on how to understand text organization since based on research on first language, that readers who are able to recognize text structure found it easier to recall the information back. From the research, it could be concluded that having the ability to understand text structure would be so beneficial for the readers in their effort of understanding the text. In short, it would be effective and beneficial if teachers also teach their students how different texts are organized and structured or how paragraphs are organized.

The fifth principle is to teach vocabulary building. To be able to understand a text, readers need to know vocabularies as much as possible. Yet, when they

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read new text, they know new vocabularies but it would not be beneficial if readers do not know what to do with that. It is the teachers’ responsibility to teach students to understand unfamiliar vocabulary so that finally it can improve their reading understanding. By giving guessing meaning exercise or rapid word-recognition exercise, teachers have taught their students to learn vocabulary. The sixth principle is to promote extensive reading. The main point of this principle is to promote alternative reading text for the students in which they are interested in. This will be a good solution as an anticipation attempt of boredom that might be experience by the students when they read text book.

The next principle is to plan effective reading classes. Planning an effective reading class would be the best step that teachers could take. It is hoped that the students are no longer learning to read but they hit the level of reading to learn. To do so, teachers need to carefully plan the class involving all needed aspects to help students improving their reading skill. The last principle is to use authentic reading assessment. According to Farrell (2009), assessment here refers to both traditional, quantitative, paper-and-pencil test which is combined with qualitative assessment like what we could find in portfolio assessment, peer assessment, self report and others.

b. Reading Comprehension Strategies

In order to support students to be strategic readers, it is important for teachers to teach reading strategies to the students. The reading strategies are sometimes linked to bottom-up or top-down activity in which will be beneficial

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for both teachers and students to reach the goal of creating strategic readers in the reading class. Brown (2001) suggests ten strategies for reading comprehension that could be applied in the teaching learning process. The first strategy is to identify the purpose of reading. The aim of identifying reading purpose is to simplify the reading activity into an efficient process. By doing so, students will be able to know what they are looking for and what attempts that can be done to the potential distraction information. The second strategy is to use graphemic rules and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding. This strategy will really help students, especially the beginner in understanding text from the very low level, words. By providing aids, it would be easier for the students to understand deeply and could build meaning from the words they learn.

The third strategy is to use efficient silent reading techniques. To help students in maximizing the use of their silent reading technique, it would be better for them to teach using some silent reading rules. Those are, (1) reducing the habit to pronounce each word, (2) try to virtually recognize more than one word at a time, (3) skip anything which is not related to global understanding and try to get the meaning from the context. The next strategy is to skim the text for the main ideas. Skimming the whole text will give students opportunity to predict the purpose of the text, the main topic, or probably the developing or supporting ideas. The fifth strategy is to scan text for specific information. Scanning is the activity of looking for certain information in the text. It is the reflection of the aim of scanning itself that is to extract specific information without reading the whole text.

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The sixth strategy is to use semantic mapping or clustering. It helps students to manage ideas into meaningful clusters. By doing so, they would easily grasp the message that is conveyed in the text. The next strategy is to guess when uncertainty comes. There are some aims of guessing in which it could be used to guess the meaning of a word, guess a grammatical relationship, guess a discourse relationship, infer implied meaning, guess on a cultural reference, and guess content messages.

The eighth strategy is to analyze vocabulary. There are several techniques that could be used on analyzing vocabulary. It is important to look for prefixes, suffixes, roots that are familiar, grammatical contexts which potentially give information, and semantic context for clues. The next strategy is to be able to distinguish between literal and implied meaning. To be able to implement the strategy, students need to master advance top-down processing skills. Not all language could be interpreted exactly but implied meaning usually derives from the pragmatic information process. The last strategy is to capitalize on discourse markers to process relationship. Discourse markers which signal relationship among ideas are expressed through phrases, clauses, and sentences. By providing clear comprehension on the discourse markers, it is hoped that it could help students understanding the text being read.

c. Curriculum 2006 in Teaching Learning Process

Curriculum 2013 is the recent curriculum used in Indonesia. A pro-contra thought from the Minister of Education which resulted to the statement to stop the implementation of the curriculum, gives impact to the teaching learning process.

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For Dinas Pendidikan Yogyakarta, some schools which had used the curriculum for three semesters might continue using it. Otherwise, the schools need to use Curriculum 2006. SMP Maria Immaculata Yogyakarta belongs to the schools group using Curriculum 2013 less than three semesters. As a result, for the even semester of 2014/2015 academic year, they are back using Curriculum 2006.

Curriculum 2006 is widely known as Kurikulum Satuan Tingkat Pendidikan (KTSP) or School-based Curriculum. It is an operational curriculum which is arranged and deployed by each level of education. This curriculum is developed based on the school level, local characteristics, social and culture of the local people and also the students itself. The development of the school-based curriculum and its syllabus is in the hands of the school and school committee under the supervision of education authorities. School-based Curriculum contains Content Standards which cover the material competence level in order to achieve the graduate competence for particular level of education. Moreover, Content Standards consist of the basic framework and curriculum structure, learning load, school-based curriculum, and academic calendar. Learning load could be translated into the amount of time that the students need in order to join the learning process which could be gained through face to face interaction in class, structured assignments, and unstructured autonomous learning. In general, School-based Curriculum consists of four components. Those are the educational purposes of the school, structure and curriculum contents, academic calendar, and also syllabus and lesson plans.

There are some terms used in School-based Curriculum. First is Competence. It refers to the ability to behave, think, and act consistently as the

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form of education, attitude and skills possess by the students. Second is Competence Standard. Competence Standard is the qualification of minimum ability that should be possessed by the students which describe the possession of attitude, knowledge and skills that is hoped to be achieved through particular subjects in each level and or semester. Third is Basic Competence. It refers to the national standard reference that should be achieved.

As stated before that the development of School-based Curriculum is given to the schools following standard form, there are some principles in developing the School-based Curriculum. Those are (1) the center of the curriculum development is the potential, development, needs and interests of the students and their environment, (2) the development should vary and integrated, (3) the development should be up to date to the improvements of arts, science, and technology, (4) the development should be relevant to the life needs, (5) the development should be comprehensive and continuous, (6) the development should reflect continuous learning, (7) the development should create a balance between national interests and local interests. All acts done for developing the School-based Curriculum should obey the Operational Direction of School-based Curriculum Development based on the regulation number 24 issued by the Minister of Education on 2006.

d. Learning Process in Curriculum 2006

According to Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2007), there are six points of teaching learning in School-based Curriculum. First, it should focus on the

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students. The teaching learning process in School-based Curriculum places students as the centre of the teaching learning process itself. The students are hoped to be more autonomous in learning with the help of the teacher. Second, it develops students’ creativity. By bringing autonomous learning concept, the door of creativity is widely opened both for the students and also the teacher. It is really hoped that creativity could help students more in understanding the learning material. Third, it is the task for the teacher to create fun and challenging learning environment. If the learning environment is already fun for the students to learn, it is hoped that it could really support the learning achievement of the students. Fourth, the learning material should be contextual. It should give the real context to the students so they will really understand what they are learning. Fifth, the teaching learning process should provide various learning experiences to the students. It would enrich the students’ experiences in learning and hopefully could boost up their willingness to learn more and achieve more. Sixth, it should be about learning by doing. It is related with the first point, that students are the focus of the teaching learning process. The relation lies on the encouraging the students to explore more by themselves. They are the doers who will do the learning things and undergo changes for improvements.

e. Genre-Based Approach

Genre-based approach is the approach that fits to be used in teaching learning process where the text with various genres is taught. This is the popular approach in 1980 which provides benefits for the students who learn different type

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of written texts (Yan, 2005). The teaching learning in genre-based approach focuses on the understanding and production of selected type of text (Lin, 2006). The students will have the detail explanation of certain genre text so that in the end of the lesson, they are expected to be able to identify and produce selected type of text in the correct form and purpose. The use of genre-based approach comes along with framework of teaching which is called as curriculum cycle.

Curriculum cycle consists of four main parts, namely (1) building knowledge of the field, (2) modeling of the text, (3) joint construction of the text, and (4) independent construction of the text (Paltridge, 2001). Building knowledge of the field aims to bring the students to the context culture and the social purpose of the text, introduce them to the roles and relationship or the related components, and also the role of the language within the activity. In modeling of the text, the students are involved in the analysis activity of the rhetorical staging of the text and lexical and grammatical analysis as well. Joint construction of the text aims to involve both the students and the teachers to produce the text using the rhetoric stage introduced before. Moreover, in the independent construction of the text, the student who are already know the correct stages of a certain text genre are expected to be able to work on the selected text genre. The description of the curriculum cycle is presented in the following figure.

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Figure 2.1 Curriculum Cycle (Hammond, et al, 1992)

3. Computer-Assisted Language Learning

There are some Computer-Assisted Language Learning theories being used in the study. Those are definitions of Computer-Assisted Language Learning, types of Computer-Assisted Language Learning program, and conditions for optimal Computer-Assisted Language Learning. The description will be presented as follows.

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a. Definitions of Computer Assisted Language Learning

The name Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) was firstly introduced in the beginning of 1980. It undergoes changing from time to time but still forms the same meaning and context. There are some definitions of CALL according to experts as follows. Chapelle (2001) proposes that “CALL is used to refer to the area of technology and second language teaching and learning”. It will include anything which is in the circle of technology that is used to support teaching and learning activity. According to Levy (1997), “CALL refers to the search for and the study of applications of computer programs in language learning”. Then it becomes more specific in the terms of technology that it narrows to what is called with computer program that could be used in language learning activity.

Beatty (2003) defines CALL as “any activity of teaching learning that uses a computer and it improves users’ language”. It supports Levy’s thought on what CALL is that it is the correlation of using computer in the classroom to facilitate teaching and learning activity which is aimed to improve users’ language proficiency. When CALL is brought into the classroom, then computer-assisted classroom is formed. According to Sivert and Egbert (1999), computer-assisted classroom is a place where various kinds of learning happened and it involved technology as subordinate to discovery and understanding.

b. Types of CALL Programs

In conducting a lesson involving CALL, there are two types of CALL programs that can be selected according to Davies, G., Rendall, H., and Walker,

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R. (2004). First, it is called Generic Software Applications. Generic software applications are designed for general use. However, those applications are very helpful to be used for teaching learning process. There are some examples of these applications, such as word processors (MS-Word), presentation software (Power Point), and web browser that can be used for web-based learning.

Second, it is called CALL Specific Software Applications. CALL specific software applications are designed to promote language learning objectives based on software author’s belief. There are two kinds of CALL specific software. The first one is content specific. In content specific, teacher can’t change the language content or activity format, as what teacher could find in CD-ROM. The second one is content free, in which teacher could provide and modify the material themselves.

c. Conditions for Optimal Computer Assisted Language Learning

There are eight conditions to create optimal language learning using CALL as proposed by Egbert et.al (1999). First, learners should have adequate opportunities to interact and negotiate meaning. They need to build a strong interaction among learners so they could slowly build the meaning of the material they are learning. Second, learners interact in the target language with an authentic audience. Building interaction among learners in a social interaction is not enough. Learners need to get involved in a purposeful interaction in which they will be able to gain better learning achievement as expected. Third, learners are involved in authentic tasks. To support the achievement of being involved in real context interaction, learners should be involved in the authentic goal for

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work. Fourth, learners are exposed to and encouraged to produce various and creative language. Involving learners in variety of tasks and creative language is aiming to give various languages input to the learners. The output is expected to be varied also which will place meaning to their development. Fifth, learners have adequate time and feedback. Learners need to have adequate time and personal feedback that will encourage them to achieve best achievement.

Sixth, learners are guided to attend mindfully to the learning process. The combination of authentic task, environment, exposure and opportunity to produce language output and enough time and feedback will be very beneficial for the learners. Thus, learners are not aware of that. As a result, they need to be lead to the learning process mindfully so that they are aware of the opportunities and able to take it all for their own improvement. Seventh, learners work in an atmosphere with an ideal stress/anxiety level. By placing them in particular atmosphere with stress/anxiety level that they could handle, the results of the learning process itself is expected could give contribution to the development of the learners. Eighth, learner autonomy is supported. Learners are expected to be able to learn with their own willingness and strategy for the optimal learning improvement. In this condition, teacher plays role as the one who encourages students to think critically not to dictate them what to do.

4. Material

In this part, there are two main points that will be discussed. The first one is the definitions of material according to experts. The second one is the factors influencing in material development.

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a. Definitions of Material

There are some definitions of material used in the study. According to Tomlinson (1998), material refers to anything that could be used to increase the learners’ knowledge or experience of the language. In other words, material could be books, dictionaries, workbooks or anything that could help learners understanding the language they learnt during the teaching learning process. Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russell (2000) define that material or instructional material is the specific items used in the teaching and learning process and delivered through various media. If a teacher uses a book entitled Diary of Anne Frank to explain what journal is and how to make it, then we could say that the book is the material used by the teacher. Moreover, it is in line with what is being proposed by Tomlinson. O’Neil (as cited in Kitao, 1997) adds that material is better to fit the students’ needs. The material would be better giving the chance for the students to prepare and review the lessons they learnt.

b. Development of Material

There are some points that should be taken into consideration in developing material for the teaching of languages. Tomlinson (1998) states some basic principle of the material development which is very beneficial for the improvement of language teaching and learning. Those are as follows.

1) Material Should Achieve Impact

The material has given impact if it has obvious effect on learners in which their curiosity level increases and when learners’ interest and attention are attracted. There are some ways that could be done to create impact, those are (1)

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adding unusual topics, interesting illustrations and activities in the material, (2) adding variety kinds of activities, variety kinds of texts taken from various sources, using various instructor voices in the cassette or recording, (3) providing attractive presentation by using attractive colors, adding photographs, and (4) offering interesting topics, possibility to learn something new or adding stories or universal themes. However, the impact achieved might not be the same within each student. In order to maximize the impact achievement, the material designer should consider the students needs, the things that could attract their interest and provide various texts and activities.

2) Material Should Help Learners to Feel at Ease

It is important to create comfortable ambience to support teaching learning process. It is said pressure can stimulate the language learning process but most researchers agree that uncomfortable condition might reduce or vanish the opportunity for students to learn language maximally (Tomlinson, 1998). There are some ways that material could help the learners to learn language at ease. First, mind the material lay out. It would be better to give a lot of white spaces in the material and do not place some activities within the same page. The look will be so crowded and it could reduce the learners’ interest in working on the material. Second, provide texts and illustrations. Learners will find it interesting if they could relate the text and illustrations with their daily life or their own culture. It will help them in understanding what is being learnt. Third, mind with the tone of the language. It would be better to give supportive tone in the material so the

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learners could feel that the material is designed to help them instead of testing them.

3) Material Should Help Learners to Develop Confidence

When the learners feel relaxed, it will be easier for them to learn anything. From that point, material takes part in helping the learners to learn and build their confidence at the same time. However, it doesn’t mean that the tasks in the material should be the easy one. To develop their confidence, there is a need to involve them in using the language they learnt in stimulating tasks. Build their confidence over tasks that require them to use their existing proficiency through problematic but solvable tasks. The tasks could be the one that involve them being imaginative, creative or critical. It could be in the form of making up a story, writing a short poem, or identifying grammatical mistakes.

4) Material Should Provide Opportunities for Outcome Feedback

Feedback is one of the important factors that support the language learning achievement. Through feedback, learners could know whether what they produce is right or wrong or on which part they need to improve. In order to be able to give the feedback, the purpose should be stated first. Feedback will be given as an evaluation in the relation of the purpose of learning and the language the learners produce. Once it is done, the feedback could be very resourceful information about language use. Material should be able to provide the activities which have intended outcomes rather than focusing on the practicing language only.

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5. Research and Development

There are two main parts of the Research and Development that will be discussed. First, it will discuss the definitions from experts. Second, it will discuss the type of developmental study and also which type being used in the study.

a. Definition of Research and Development

Research and Development (R&D) is one of the methods used for educational research. In the study, there are some definitions of Research and Development being used. According to Seels and Richey as cited in Richey and Klein (2005), developmental research is the systematic study containing the process of designing, developing and evaluating instructional programs, processes, and products which should meet the criteria of effectiveness and consistency. From the definition, it could be concluded that developmental study seeks to construct knowledge from the data derived from practice. It is one of the ways to create new procedures, techniques or tools based on methodological analysis of specific cases.

Borg and Gall (1963), support it by stating that R & D is a research method which consists of a cycle in which a version of a product is developed, field tested and revised based on the field tested result. It is in line with Seels and Richey’s statement that in developmental study, the core of the study involving the process of designing, developing and evaluating instructional programs or products. In addition, Borg and Gall add ten major steps in R & D cycle, those are (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3) develop preliminary form of product, (4) preliminary field-testing, (5) main product revision, (6) main field-testing, (7)

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operational product revision, (8) operational field testing, (9) final product revision, and (10) dissemination and implementation. In the study, there are six steps of R&D that will be implemented, namely (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3) developing preliminary form of product, (4) preliminary field-testing, (5) main product revision, and (6) final product revision.

b. Type of Research and Development

There are two types of developmental study according to Richey, Klein and Nelson as cited by Richey and Klein (2005). The first one is Type 1 which focuses on the given instructional program, product, process or tool. It usually pays attention on three things, namely product design, development and evaluation. Moreover, developmental study Type 1 might also validate particular design, or development technique or tools. The second one is developmental study Type 2. Type 2 focuses on a given design, development, evaluation model or process. The study may involve the activity of constructing and validating unique design and models and processes and also identifying conditions that could facilitate the successful use.

The study refers to developmental study Type 1. In the study, there are processes which become the focus of Type 1, namely product design, development, and evaluation. The product is designed based on needs of the users which are shown in the systematic data gained in the preliminary data gathering. Thus, the evaluation is in the form of gaining feedbacks from the products expert and revising it.

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6. Instructional Design

Instructional design is one of the important things in teaching learning process. According to Gagne and Briggs (1979), what is called with instructions is a set of events that affects learners in a facilitated learning. The purpose is to activate and support individual learning to achieve the goals. Meanwhile, the planned instruction is aimed to help individual learners to achieve their fully personal directions. According to Gagne and Briggs (1979), there are five basic assumptions of instructional designs. First, instructional design should have purpose to aid individual learning. Second, it has phases which are both immediate and long term. Third, when it is systematically designed, instructional design can give great influence to human development. Fourth, instructional design should be conducted by means of a system approach. Fifth, instructional design should be based on the knowledge of how human being learns. In the study, the instructional design that will be adapted is from Kemp’s. The details will be presented in the following paragraphs.

a. The Nature of Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

Kemp (1971) states approach and procedures in designing a learning process are called instructional design. The instructional model is designed to answer the following three questions. Those questions are (1) what are the objectives, (2) what activities and resources that will support to achieve the goals, and (3) the evaluation to check whether the goals have been achieved or not. Kemp constructs the instructional design with eight steps, which will be described as follows. The first step is defining goals, topics, and general purposes. The first step of Kemp’s

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instructional design will focus on the broad goals as what every educational program has. The goals can be taken from three sources, namely society, students, and subject areas. Since goals are usually broad, there is a need to specify it in the form of general purposes. Moreover, major topics are also needed to be treated within the content area.

The second step is finding out learner characteristics. To create such a successful learning process, it is important to pay attention on the learners’ uniqueness as an individual. They will be succeeded if they have the chance to learn in their own pace. In designing the instructional model, looking for learners’ characteristics is important and it could cover the information on students’ academic and social factors, their learning conditions, and also their learning styles. The third step of Kemp’s instructional design is specifying learning objectives. In writing down the learning objectives, course designer should know categories of objectives which are classified into three major categories, namely cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. The domain for educational program is the cognitive domain. Cognitive domain consists of categorization, from the simple up to the complex one. It is usually called with Bloom’s taxonomy which consists of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In writing the objectives, it is needed to select the appropriate action verb to represent the objective. However, the most important thing is that, the objective should be measurable and being written in sequence.

The fourth step is organizing subject content. Organizing content refers to the process of organizing specific knowledge. It includes organizing facts and information. Moreover, it will also cover how to organize skills which includes

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Procedure Text

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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

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Exercises

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Exercise 5

Exercise 6

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

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Exercise 8

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Scanning

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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

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Computer-Assisted reading material to enhance reading skills.

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