AN ANALYSIS OF SHIFTS IN THE TRANSLATION OF THE CHRONICLES OF NARNIA: THE SILVER CHAIR BY C.S LEWIS INTO THE CHRONICLES OF NARNIA: KURSI PERAK BY DONNA WIDJAJANTO.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT ……….. i

ABSTRACT ………. ii

PREFACE ……… iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……….. iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………. v

LIST OF TABLES ………... viii

LIST OF FIGURES ………. ix

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ………. 1

1.1 Background of the Study……….. 1

1.2 Statement of the Problems ………... 3

1.3 Aims of the Study ……… 4

1.4 Research Method ………. 4

1.5 Significant of the Study ………... 5

1.6 Clarification of Terms ……….. 6

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FOUNDATION ………... 8

2.1 Definitions of Translation ……… 8

2.2 Types of Translation ……… 9

2.3 The Translation Process ……….. 10

2.4 Translation Procedures ……… 12

2.4.1 Literal ……… 12

2.4.3 Naturalization ……… 13

2..4.4 Cultural Equivalent ………... 14

2.4.5 Functional Equivalent ………... 14

2.4.6 Descriptive Equivalent ……….. 15

2.4.7 Synonymy ………. 15

2.4.8 Through Translation………... 16

2.4.9 Shift or transposition ……… 16

2.4.10 Modulation ……… 17

2.4.11 Recognized Translation ……… 17

2.4.12 Translation label ………... 18

2.4.13 Compensation ………... 18

2.4.14 Componential analysis ……….. 18

2.4.15 Reduction and Expansion ………... 18

2.4.16 Paraphrase ………. 19

2.4.17 Couplets ……… 19

2.4.18 Notes, Addition, Glosses ……….. 20

2.5 Shifts in Translation ………. 20

2.6 General Criteria Evaluation in Translation ……….. 23

2.7 Translation Competence ……….. 24

3.3 Data Collection ……….... 30

3.3.1 Data Source ………... 30

3.3.2 Collection Procedures ……….. 31

3.4 Data Analysis ……….. 32

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION……….. 34

4.1 Shifts ……….. 34

4.1.1 Structure Shifts ………... 35

4.1.2 Class shifts ………. 36

4.1.3 Unit Shifts ……… 38

4.1.4 Intra-system Shifts ………... 39

4.2 Strategies that Co-occur with Shifts………. 40

4.2.1 Shifts and Modulation ………. 41

4.2.2 Shifts and Reduction ……… 42

4.2.3 Shifts and Expansion ……….. 45

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS ………... 48

5.1 Conclusion ……….. 48

5.2 Suggestions ………. 49

REFERENCES ……….. 51 APPENDIX

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of background of the study, statements of the problems, aims of study, research methods, significance of the study, clarification of key terms and organization of the paper.

1.1 Background of the Study

Nowadays, the importance of translation is obviously shown in our daily life. The effect of that phenomenon can be seen from various translation books, novels, newspapers, and magazines. However, translation is not a simple process. It is not simply changing words from one language to another language. This is in line with Larson (1998) who states that translation is a complex process. Moreover, he explains that in the process of translating, the translator moves back and forth from the source text (ST) to target text (TT). It can be concluded that translation cannot be done in one go. It means that, translation is conducted through several processes.

Larson (1998) states that a good translation should be accurate, clear and natural. Yet, it is not easy to achieve thiscriterion of a good translation. Translator must have some competency as disclosed in several studies (Neves, 2007;

Differences between one language and another language may cause problems in translations such as shifts. Yet, by having translation competencies, the translator will be able to deal with such translation problems.

Transposition or shift, according to Catford (1965), is divided into several categories i.e. level shifts and category shifts. Level shift means a shift from grammatical unit in SL to a lexical unit in TL. Level shift include studies like morphology, semantic, etc. Category shifts cover structure shifts, class shifts, unit shifts and intra systems shifts. However, even though there are two kinds of shifts, this present study only focus on category shifts.

There have been a number of studies dealing with translation (Suh, 2005; Nasir, 2007; Suryana, 2007; Mungchomklang, 2009). They are focusing on the strategies that are used in translating plays, biology texts, fiction texts and

abstracts of theses and master’s projects. The strategies that are used in plays are

borrowing, transcription literal translation and calque. In translating biology texts, the strategies that are mostly used are communicative and literal translation. In translating fiction texts, word-for-word and literal translation are used more frequently. Meanwhile in abstracts of theses and master’s projects, the most frequent translation strategies are omission, explanation, general words, substitution, related words, unrelated words and expressive words.

The studies on shifts translation were also conducted. The studies analyzed

the application of Catford’s shifts in several texts. They were the Indonesian

translation on Reconstruction of Sinabang Port Specifications, the Persian translation of Oliver twist novel, and the Farsi translation of psychology texts

(Sofyan 2009; Khorsidi, 2010; Vossoughi & Pourebrahim, 2010). The results in

Sofyan’s study (2009) entitled Indonesian translation of Reconstruction of

Sinabung Port Specifications, showed that the same thematic structure tends to

occur in the text. Furthermore, most theme in ST were translated into the same type in TT. Meanwhile in the Persian translation of Oliver Twist novel and the

Farsi translation of psychology text, the most frequently applied kinds of shifts

was structural shifts.

All of previous studies above; however, only concerned the types of shifts that occur in the novel and investigated the most shifts that are used in the novel. None of them concerned with strategies that co-occur with shifts.

Therefore, from the aforementioned above, this present study investigates shifts and the strategies that co-occur with the shifts in the novel “The Chronicles

of Narnia: The Silver Chair”.

1.2Statement of the Problems

This study attempts to address following questions:

1. What shifts are applied in the translation of the novel The Chronicles of

Narnia The Silver: Chair by C.S Lewis into The Chronicles of Narnia: Kursi Perak by Donna Widjajanto?

1.3Aims of the study

Aims of this study are:

1. To investigate shifts that are applied in the translation in the novel The

Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair by C.S Lewis into The Chronicles of Narnia: Kursi Perak by Donna Widjajanto.

2. To investigate strategies that co-occur with shifts.

1.4Research Methods

The study is conducted based on the qualitative method. A qualitative method is applied to investigate kinds of category shifts and unit shifts that are found in the novel and may affect the quality of the translation

The source of the data in this research is a novel written by C.S Lewis

entitled “The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair” and its Bahasa Indonesia

translation “The Chronicles of Narnia: Kursi Perak” that was translated by Donna Widjajanto. This novel was chosen since according to Atlantic magazine (2001), it is bestselling classis fantasy series and considered as a classic of

children’s literature. The Chronicles of Narnia has also been adapted for radio,

television, the stage and film, whether it is in complete or in part.

To collect the data, it starts with close reading the entire chapter of the C. S. Lewis

novel entitled “The Chronicles of Narnia” both English and Indonesian version.

After reading the entire chapters, the next step is selecting the chapters from the novel by using purposive sampling technique. Purposive sampling allows the

researcher to select the data according to the needs as a representation of whole data (Flick, 2004).

The data acquired from the study are analyzedby applying shift translation theory as proposed by Catford. The data are analyzed by (1) comparing the sentences, English and bahasa Indonesia version, (b) identifying and classifying kind of shifts, (c) analyzing and explaining shifts, (d) analyzing the structure of the sentences, (e) describing and interpreting the result of the analysis, and (f) drawing conclusion.

1.5Significance of the Study

The result of the study is expected to give some positive impacts to the reader and the writer about shifts translation that might be encountered in the translation. The results are expected to (a) give useful contribution and valuable information to the development of translation theories and (b) give some informative input to those who want to carry on furtherstudy in the same field.

1.6Clarification of key terms

The following are some clarified terms in this study to avoid misinterpretation:

a. Translation

Translation refers to “rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text”. (Newmark, 1988:7) b. Shifts or transpositions

Shifts or transpositions refers to “a translation procedure involving a change in the grammar from Source Language (SL) into Target Language

(TL)” (Newmark, 1988:85)

c. Source Language

Source language refers to “a language that is to be translated into another language”. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)

d. Target Language

Target language refers to “a language into which a text written in another language is to be translated”. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)

1.7The Organization of Paper

The paper is presented in five chapters. Chapter one presents the introduction of the research. It consists of background of the study, statements of the problems, the aims of the study, the research method, significance of the study, and organization of the paper. Chapter two presents theoretical foundation. It describes some relevant theories to conduct the study. It covers the theory of translation, the theory of shifts, novel and complex sentences. This chapter also discusses the previous studies that are related to the present study. Chapter three presents methodology of the study. It covers the method of the study, the subject of the study, population and sample, and the data analysis of the study. Chapter four presents the findings and the discussion of the study. Chapter five presents conclusions and suggestions of the study.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the methodology of the study in details in order to find the answer to the research questions. It includes statement of problems, research design, data collection and data analysis.

3.1 Statement of Problems

The present study seeks to investigate shifts that are applied in the translation of the novel The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair by C.S Lewis into The Chronicles

of Narnia: Kursi Perak by Donna Widjajanto, and reveal the strategies that co-occur

with the shifts.

3.2 Research Design

This present study attempts to find out shifts that are applied in the novel and strategies that co-occur with the shifts. This study is guided by descriptive qualitative method. The qualitative method allows the researcher to examine the shifts and the strategies that co-occur with the shifts. It helps the researcher to categorize the shifts that occurred. It also helps the author to describe and explore the data analysis. This is in line with the principles of qualitative study; namely, natural setting, descriptive, concerned with process, inductive, and emphasizes meaning as stated by (Bogdan &

The data are analyzed descriptively, which include collecting, classifying, analyzing, reporting the data and making conclusion.

3.3 Data Collection 3.3.1 Data Source

The data were taken from two novels, i.e The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair by C.S Lewis (English version) that was first published in Great Britain in 1998 by Collins, and The Chronicles of Narnia: Kursi Perak that was translated by Donna Widjajanto, published in 2005 by Gramedia Pustaka Utama.

The reason behind the choice of the novel was because the Chronicles of Narnia is one of the bestselling novels. In fact, the novel has 65 billlion copies in print in thirty languages (Atlantic magazine, 2001).

The Silver Chair is the first Narnia book without the Pevensie children (Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy) who were appear in previous series of Narnia (The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe; Prince Caspian: The Return to Narnia; The Voyage of the Dawn Treader). Instead, Eustace was called back by Aslan to Narnia. Eustace with his classmate Jill Pole were given task to find Prince Rilian. They were given

3.3.2 Collection Procedures

To collect the data for the study, the novels both in English and bahasa Indonesia were chosen. The first step of collecting the data was close reading The

Chronicles of Narnia novel both in English and Indonesia version. After close

reading the entire chapter of the novel, the next step was selecting several chapters by using purposive sample. By using the purposive sample, the researcher was able to take several chapters from the novel as data representation. Thus, the data of this present study was three chapters of the novel, i.e. the first chapter, the ninth chapter and the final chapter. The total number of the sentences that will be analyzed total 150 sentences. Those three chapters were selected because they were considered sufficient to represent the entire chapters. The next step was taping the selected chapters. Taping the sentences from selected chapters would facilitate the researcher in comparing the sentences.

Moreover, to support the data, the writer also added some complementary data which are significant in enriching the information and developing the idea of the study. This data were taken from many sources such as textbooks, dictionaries, journals, articles, websites, etc.

3.4 Data Analysis

The data of the study was written data. The data were sentences from selected chapters of the novel both English and Indonesia version. The data were analyzed through following steps. Firstly, the data were compared in order to identify shifts that occurred in the sentences of the target text (TT). Afterwards, the data were classified into category as proposed by Catford (1965). Shifts, according to Catford (1965) are categorized into level shifts and category shifts. As mentioned in previous chapter, this study focus on category shifts that cover structure shifts, class shifts, unit shifts and intra systems shifts. Structure shifts occur when there are grammatical change in ST and TT. Class shifts occur when SL item is translated into TL item which belongs to a different grammatical class in ST to TT, for instance the changes from noun in ST into adjective in TT. Unit shifts occur when a unit in SL is translated into different unit in TL. For instance, a sentence in ST is translated into phrases in TT. Intra systems shifts occur when there are different system in SL and TL. After gaining the shifts, the next step was calculating and presenting the shifts that were found. After that, analyzing and explaining the shifts that were found based on

Catford’s theory.

calculating total number and percentage of each type of strategies that co-occur with the shifts. After calculating the total number, the next step is presenting the results of the calculation into tables. Furthermore, describing and interpreting the results of the analysis that were conducted. The last step was drawing conclusion based on the findings.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

The chapter presents the conclusion and the suggestions of the study. The conclusion summarizes the findings and the discussion of the present study, while the suggestions promote any possible further research in the future.

5.1 Conclusion

The present study examined shifts that occurred in the novel The Chronicles of

Narnia: The Silver Chair and its translation The Chronicles of Narnia: Kursi Perak, and other strategies that co-occur with the shifts.

The study showed that the four types of shifts namely structure-shifts, class-shifts, unit-shifts and intra system-shifts occurred. The most frequently shifts that occurred were unit shifts with 91occurrences (60.6 %) followed by intra system shifts with 36 occurrences (24%), class shifts with 17 occurrences (11.3 %) and structure shifts with 6 occurrences (4%).

Meanwhile, regarding the second research question, it is found that shifts with no other strategies appeared mostly with 104 occurrences (69.3%), shifts and modulation with 2 occurrences (1.3%), shifts and reduction with 33 occurrences (22%), and shifts and expansion with 11 occurrences (7.3%).

The data analysis reveals that unit shift tends to occur mostly in the text.

Unit shifts refers to “changes of rank that is departures from formal

correspondence in which the translation equivalence of unit at one rank in the SL

is a unit at a different rank in the TL” (Cattord, 1965:79). It can be concluded that in this text, phrases were translated into words and vice versa. This occured because phrases in SL cannot always be translated in phrases in TL. So, in order to make the translation clear, accurate and natural as proposed by Larson (1984), the translator should change or translate the phrases into words, etc as proposed by Catford (1965).

Furthermore, in this study, shifts with no co-occur strategies were mostly found in the translated novel. Accordingly, it can be concluded that the text is quite easy to understand, so that there is no need to use two or more strategies in translating the text.

5.2 Suggestion

The study concluded that in applying shifts category by Catford (1965), unit shift occurred more frequently in the text. Moreover, the other strategies that co-occur with the shift show that reduction occurred more frequently in the text. There are some suggestions regarding the analysis and discussion of shifts in previous chapter.

Regarding the data, the number of the data seems to be the limitation of the present study. In order to obtain more objective and representative results, further studies are suggested to involve the entire data, not use sample as data

analysis. In addition, not only written data such as novel, varied objects from different sources such as newspapers, textbooks, speech, subtitles, etc. are also suggested to be chosen by further researcher.

Moreover, further exploration in genre novel is needed to obtain more knowledge and findings and also enrich the translation research. The last is, further study can find out other theory that related to the shifts theory.

REFERENCES

Al-Qinal, Jamal. (2009). Style Shift in Translation. Journal of Pan-Pacific

Assosiation of Applied Linguistics, 13(2), 23-41. Retrieved from: http:/www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/Ej868850.pdf

Bassnett, Susan. (2002). Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge.

Bell, Roger T. 1993. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.

Bogdan, Robert C. and Biklen, Sari Knopp. (1982). Qualitative Research for

Education: an introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn and

Bacon, Inc.

Catford, J. C. (1965). A Lingustic Theory of Translation. Oxfrod: OUP.

Cresswell, John W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design Choosing

Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Ltd.

Flick, Uwe. (2004). An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Berlin: Sage Publications. Ltd.

Easbrook, Gregg. (2012, May 14). In defense of C.S Lewis. Atlantic Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/10/in-defense-of-c-s-lewis/2301/

Joseph, E. Johannes. (2010). The Equivalence and Shift in the Indonesian Translation

from English Nominal Collocation. Available at: http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article1105.php [June 28, 2012]

Khorsidi, Navid. (2010). The Application of Catford’s Shifts on the Persian

Translation of Oliver Twist by Yusof Gharib. Translation Directory.

[Online]. Available at:

http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2108.php [September 2, 2012]

Larson, Meldred L. (1998). Meaning-Based Translation: a guide to cross language

equivalence. Lanham: University Press of America.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary. [Online]. Available At: www.merriam-webster.com/

Mungchomklang, Onnicha. (2009). Strategies Used in Translating Abstracts of

Theses and Master’s Projects. [Online]. Available at:

thesis.swu.ac.th/swuthesis/Eng(M.A.)/Onnicha_M.pdf [May 5, 2011]

Nasir, Muhamad. (2007). Problems in Translating English Biology Texts into

Indonesian. Unpublished thesis, Indonesia University of Education,

Bandung, Indonesia.

Neves, Rui Rothe. (2007). Notes on the concept of translator’s competence.Quarens

Revista de traduccio. 14. 124-138 [Online]. Available at: http://ddd.uab.cat/pub/quaderns/11385790n14p125.txt [July 11, 2011]

Newmark, Peter. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International.

Nida, Eugene A, and Charles R. Taber (1982). The Theory and Practice of

Translation. Netherlans: E.J. Brill, Leiden.

Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Towards a Science of Translation. Leiden: E. J Brill

PACTE. (2003). “Building a Translation Competence Model”. In: Alves, F. (ed.). Triangulation Translation: Perspectives in Process Oriented Research,

Ressurreccio, et al. (2008). The Acquisition of Translation Competence through

Textual Genre. Translation Journal. Available at:

http://translationjournal.net/journal/46competence.htm [August 12, 2011]

Sofyan, Rudy. (2009). Topical Theme Shift in Factual English-Bahasa Indonesia

Translation on Reconstruction of Sinabung Port Specifications. [Online].

Available at :

http://repository.usu.ac.id/bitstream/123456789/5746/1/09E03002.pdf [April 26, 2011]

Sugiyono. (2009). Metode Penelitian Pendekatan Kuantitatif Kualitatif. Jakarta: Alfabeta.

Suh, Joseph Che. (2005). A Study of Translation Strategies I Guellaome Oyono

Mbia’s Plays. [Online]. Available at:

http://umkndsp01.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/1687/thesis.pdf?seq uence=1 [April 8, 2011]

Suryana, Yayan. (2007). Translating Indonesian Fiction into English. Unpublished thesis, Indonesia University of Education, Bandung, Indonesia.

Vossoughi, Hossein. & Pourebrahim, Farhad. (2010). Applaying Catford’s Shifts to

the Farsi Translation of Psychology Texts. JELS, 1(3), 79-90. Retrieved from: http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2108.php

Zainurrahman. (2010). Translation Competencies. Available at: http://zainurrahmans.wordpress.com/xmlrpc.php [May 2, 2011]

Zakhir, Marouane (2008). Translation procedures, Translation directory. Available at: http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article1704.php [June 24, 2011].

analysis. In addition, not only written data such as novel, varied objects from different sources such as newspapers, textbooks, speech, subtitles, etc. are also suggested to be chosen by further researcher.

Moreover, further exploration in genre novel is needed to obtain more knowledge and findings and also enrich the translation research. The last is, further study can find out other theory that related to the shifts theory.

REFERENCES

Al-Qinal, Jamal. (2009). Style Shift in Translation. Journal of Pan-Pacific Assosiation of Applied Linguistics, 13(2), 23-41. Retrieved from: http:/www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/Ej868850.pdf

Bassnett, Susan. (2002). Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge.

Bell, Roger T. 1993. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.

Bogdan, Robert C. and Biklen, Sari Knopp. (1982). Qualitative Research for Education: an introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.

Catford, J. C. (1965). A Lingustic Theory of Translation. Oxfrod: OUP.

Cresswell, John W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Ltd.

Flick, Uwe. (2004). An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Berlin: Sage Publications. Ltd.

Easbrook, Gregg. (2012, May 14). In defense of C.S Lewis. Atlantic Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/10/in-defense-of-c-s-lewis/2301/

Joseph, E. Johannes. (2010). The Equivalence and Shift in the Indonesian Translation from English Nominal Collocation. Available at: http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article1105.php [June 28, 2012]

Khorsidi, Navid. (2010). The Application of Catford’s Shifts on the Persian

Translation of Oliver Twist by Yusof Gharib. Translation Directory.

[Online]. Available at:

http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2108.php [September 2, 2012]

Larson, Meldred L. (1998). Meaning-Based Translation: a guide to cross language equivalence. Lanham: University Press of America.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary. [Online]. Available At: www.merriam-webster.com/

Munday, Jeremy. 2006. Introducing Translation studies. theories and applications. London and New York: Routledge.

Mungchomklang, Onnicha. (2009). Strategies Used in Translating Abstracts of

Theses and Master’s Projects. [Online]. Available at:

thesis.swu.ac.th/swuthesis/Eng(M.A.)/Onnicha_M.pdf [May 5, 2011]

Nasir, Muhamad. (2007). Problems in Translating English Biology Texts into Indonesian. Unpublished thesis, Indonesia University of Education, Bandung, Indonesia.

Neves, Rui Rothe. (2007). Notes on the concept of translator’s competence.Quarens Revista de traduccio. 14. 124-138 [Online]. Available at: http://ddd.uab.cat/pub/quaderns/11385790n14p125.txt [July 11, 2011]

Newmark, Peter. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International.

Nida, Eugene A, and Charles R. Taber (1982). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Netherlans: E.J. Brill, Leiden.

Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Towards a Science of Translation. Leiden: E. J Brill

PACTE. (2003). “Building a Translation Competence Model”. In: Alves, F. (ed.).

Ressurreccio, et al. (2008). The Acquisition of Translation Competence through

Textual Genre. Translation Journal. Available at:

http://translationjournal.net/journal/46competence.htm [August 12, 2011]

Sofyan, Rudy. (2009). Topical Theme Shift in Factual English-Bahasa Indonesia Translation on Reconstruction of Sinabung Port Specifications. [Online]. Available at :

http://repository.usu.ac.id/bitstream/123456789/5746/1/09E03002.pdf [April 26, 2011]

Sugiyono. (2009). Metode Penelitian Pendekatan Kuantitatif Kualitatif. Jakarta: Alfabeta.

Suh, Joseph Che. (2005). A Study of Translation Strategies I Guellaome Oyono

Mbia’s Plays. [Online]. Available at:

http://umkndsp01.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/1687/thesis.pdf?seq uence=1 [April 8, 2011]

Suryana, Yayan. (2007). Translating Indonesian Fiction into English. Unpublished thesis, Indonesia University of Education, Bandung, Indonesia.

Vossoughi, Hossein. & Pourebrahim, Farhad. (2010). Applaying Catford’s Shifts to

the Farsi Translation of Psychology Texts. JELS, 1(3), 79-90. Retrieved from: http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2108.php

Zainurrahman. (2010). Translation Competencies. Available at: http://zainurrahmans.wordpress.com/xmlrpc.php [May 2, 2011]

Zakhir, Marouane (2008). Translation procedures, Translation directory. Available at: http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article1704.php [June 24, 2011].