Problem Formulation Problem Limitation Objectives of the Study Collecting Information

3 As the consequences, the students and teachers need instructional materials on short functional texts. However, it is difficult for many teachers to find and design English teaching materials, especially on short functional texts. Therefore, this study is conducted to give a contribution by proposing instructional materials on short functional texts for Senior High School students grade X.

B. Problem Formulation

The problem of this study is formulated as follows: What is the proposed instructional materials on short functional texts for Senior High School students grade X according to School­Based Curriculum for English teaching?

C. Problem Limitation

This study is limited on proposing instructional materials on short functional texts for Senior High School students grade X. The materials are focused on advertisement, announcement, and invitation, as short functional texts used to teach Senior High School students grade X. They are arranged based on the guidelines of School­Based Curriculum. This study will discuss proposed instructional materials, not the implementation of the developed materials.

D. Objectives of the Study

Considering the problem formulation, this study is conducted to propose the instructional materials on short functional texts for Senior High School students grade X. There will be eight units of materials designed which hopefully motivate the students in learning English and give contributions to teachers in creating materials. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 4 E. Benefits of the Study This study, hopefully give beneficial contributions for: 1. English Teachers The study will help teachers in providing instructional materials on short functional texts and developing the application of designed materials. 2. The students As the materials designed based on School­Based Curriculum, the activities hopefully facilitate students to develop their skills and improve their competencies. 3. Further researchstudy The study will give contribution on how to design or develop materials, especially for instructional materials on short functional texts.

F. Definitions of Terms

There are some terms used in developing the program to avoid misinterpretation. Here are the terms that will be used frequently. 1. Instructional Materials Referring to Dick, Walter and Reiser 1989:3, instructional materials are materials planned by the teacher for instruction. In this study, instructional materials are materials which are designed to facilitate the students in studying English. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 5 2. Short Functional Texts In this study, short functional text is defined as a text that has practical function which is used in everyday life. It is an authentic material used in teaching learning activities. 3. Senior High Schools Students Senior High School is a high school offering the last years of secondary education, usually consisting of grades 10, 11, and 12. Websters New World College Dictionary, 2010. In this study, Senior High School students are the English learners on grade X. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 6 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Two major discussions will be presented in this chapter. They are theoretical description and theoretical framework. Some related theories about School­Based Curriculum, communicative competence, model of language, literacy approach, short functional texts, advertisement, announcement, invitation, instructional design model, and educational research development will be discussed in the theoretical description. Furthermore, the theoretical framework will present the summary of theoretical description and explain the steps taken in developing the instructional materials.

2.1. Theoretical Description

This section will discuss theories related to School­Based Curriculum, communicative competence, model of language, literacy approach, short functional texts, advertisement, announcement, invitation, instructional design model, and educational research development.

2.1.1. School­Based Curriculum

After implementing variety of curriculum for education, since 2006, Indonesia has implemented School­Based Curriculum. The curriculum was made as guidance in conducting learning activities in every educational level BSNP, 2006: 5. This curriculum demands each school to develop and apply its own PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 7 curriculum. In addition, the School­Based Curriculum emphasizes the competency of the students. Thus, the students are demanded to achieve the basic competence in language for communicative purpose. In other words, this curriculum is designed to help the users develop English communicative competence as life skills. Moreover, School­Based Curriculum has specific characteristics in the role of the teachers and the students. 2.1.1.1.The Role of Teachers in School­Based Curriculum In School – Based Curriculum, the teachers are expected to develop and apply their own curriculum BSNP, 2006: 5. Furthermore, according to Mulyasa, 2003: 188 teacher is not the main source of the learning. Teachers act as a facilitator which means teachers should help the students in learning process, and prepare the materials used in teaching learning activities. Thus, teachers are more considered as students’ partners that have duty to create conducive atmosphere for learning. Mulyasa 2003 defined a conducive atmosphere as having an active, creative, effective and interesting learning environment.

2.1.1.2. The Role of Students in School­Based Curriculum

The students are treated as the center of the learning process BSNP, 2006: 5. As they are considered subjects, they have to be more active in looking for knowledge from any kind of sources. The classroom activities may be conducted dynamically, that create an interdependent process among the students. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 8 2.1.1.3.The Scopes of English Education for Senior High School There are three scopes of English education for Senior High School Depdiknas, 2006. The scopes are: 1 Communicative competence, an ability to comprehend andor create spoken and written texts through four basic skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing, in integrated, to achieve the informational literacy level. 2 An ability to comprehend and create any kinds of short functional texts and monolog, and essay in a form of procedure, descriptive, recount, narrative, report, news item, analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, spoof, explanation, discussion, review, and public speaking. The materials gradation can be seen from vocabulary building, language focus, and rhetorical. 3 Supporting competence which includes linguistic competence, sociocultural competence, strategic competence, and discourse competence.

2.1.2. Communicative Competence

As quoted, in 1971, Hymes made up a technical term that the competence required for language communication called communicative competence. Since Indonesia develops School­Based for educational curriculum, it emphasizes communicative competence as the goal of language acquisition Agustien, 2005: 11. Seeing what competences should be required to develop students’ PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 9 communicative competence, the communicative competence model proposed by Celce­Murcia might be the important guideline. Figure 2.1. Schematic Representation of Communicative Competence Celce­Murcia 1995:10 Based on the diagram, Celce­Murcia recommended that communicative competence is made up of five competences areas as follows. a. Linguistic competence It is a competence on knowing how to use the grammar, intonation, punctuation, syntax and vocabulary on a language. b. Actual competence Actual competence means an ability to do something by using language to convey certain message both spoken and written. Discourse Competence Sociocultural competence Linguistic Competence Actual Competence Strategic Competence PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 10 c. Sociocultural competence It refers to the ability to communicate in the way native speakers of the language do based on the cultural where the language is used Depdiknas, 2004: 58. It is about knowing how to use and respond to the language in community appropriately. d. Strategic competence This competence allows a speaker to compensate deficiencies in the process of communication Depdiknas, 2004: 61. It means knowing to recognize and repair communication breakdowns, and how to work around gaps. e. Discourse competence It is a competence that learners are able to create texts, both spoken and written in real communication Depdiknas, 2004: 58. In essence, the language education must be developing discourse competence. Therefore, discourse competence is placed at the centre of the diagram. It implies that students can develop themselves on knowing how to interpret larger context and make up parts of language coherent by producing spoken and written texts. Hence, the linguistic, actual, sociocultural, and strategic competences should come together to shape the discourse competence, in order to accomplish communication goal. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 11 2.1.3. Model of Language The aim of teaching English is to enable the learners to create English texts not only sentence grammatically, but also English discourse grammatically Agustien, 2005: 12. It means that as every culture has its ways of creating text, therefore, the model of language is needed to create a text in English way. In this study, the language model is mentioned as functional language model. There are six main concepts of language model Feez, 2002: 5. They are: 1. A language is a resource for making meaning, 2. The resource of language consists of a set of interrelated systems, 3. Language users draw on this resource each time they use the language, 4. Language users create texts to make meaning, 5. Texts are shaped by the social context where and when they are used, and 6. The social context is shaped by the people who use the language. The following diagram illustrates the model of language; a model that looks at language as communication or texts as a ‘record’ of context Agustien, 2005: 11 CULTURE Genre Purpose SITUATION Who is involved? Tenor Subject Channel Matter Field Mode REGISTER Figure 2.2 The Language Model Adapted from Hammond et al, 1992: 1 TEXT PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 12 It can be seen from the diagram that text is a product of contexts. Moreover, there are three important points in language. They are contexts, text, and language system. The following are the elaboration of those points. 2.1.3.1.Context Context is related to the shared field of experience owned by people communicate. In other words, people should decide and consider what kinds of context they arranged in communication. In any context, language is used for three main functions Depdiknas, 2003: 4 as follows. 1. Ideational Function This function is about the use of language to express ideas and to communicate information. 2. Interpersonal Function This function is about the way language is used to build the social relation among others. It can be seen from human interaction, through expressing opinions, attitudes, and feelings. 3. Textual Function This function is about organizing meanings into spoken or written text. Those three functions help the students in implementing the language function through the description of basic competence of each four basic skills and the indicators. Furthermore, there are two contexts in functional language model. The context of culture and context of situation lead the students in creating a text. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 13 2.1.3.1.1. Context of Culture In figure 2.2, the largest box represents context of culture. In the context of culture, recognizable patterns of structure and language within texts have evolved Feez, 1998: 6. The patterns are called genres. Therefore, every context of culture produces text type or genre. In other words, particular culture determines the types of texts or genres which are produced. Thus, teacher needs to address some English genres appropriately.

2.1.3.1.2. Context of Situation

The smaller box in figure 2.2 represents context of situation. When communication occurs, people cope different context of situation. Each situation is characterized by register of language. As cited in Depdiknas, 2004: 13, Halliday 1985a: 41 defines register as what the speakers are talking about and depends on what the speakers are doing at the moment the language is used. The register of any context of situation is a combination of three variables Gerot and Wignell, 1994: 11. The variables are: 1. Field Field refers to what is going on, including which subject matter is being discussed, and social activity in which the speakers who communicate are involved. 2. Tenor Tenor refers to social relationship between speakers when they communicate. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 14 3. Mode Mode refers to the channel of communication used by the speakers, whether it is spoken or written. Those register variables affect the peoples’ language choice in communication. 2.1.3.2.Text The smallest box in figure 2.2 represents the text used in context. Text can be defined as any stretch of language which is held together cohesively through meaning Feez, 2002: 4. When people communicate through conversation or writing, they create a text indeed. Moreover, Halliday as quoted in Depdiknas 2004: 15 called a text as a social exchanging meaning. When people listen and read, they are involved in exchanging meaning. 2.1.3.3.Language System According to Feez 2002: 6, language has three layers which occur simultaneously whenever it is used. These layers are: 1 Meaning of discourse semantics The layer of meaning interacts with the register variables to achieve three main functions of language. The relationship between meanings and register variables is shown in the following tables Feez, 2002: 7 . PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 15 Discourse semantics Texts Lexicogrammar Words and structure Expression Sounds or writing Table 2.1 The main functions of language and their relationship to the register variables Ideational Language represents the world logically through experiential and logical meanings. These meanings are reflection of field. Interpersonal Language builds relationships through interpersonal meanings. These meanings are a reflection of tenor. Textual Language organizes meanings into spoken and written text through textual meanings These meanings are a reflection of mode. 2 Words and structures of the lexicogrammar This layer gives human language its creative power and its complexity. It shows how grammatical patterns structure words into phrases and finally into clauses. 3 Expression or phonology and graphology The expression layer is the layer of the language model which we perceive in the physical world. The technical term for a sound we hear in spoken language is phoneme, and the technical term for a symbol we see in written language is grapheme. Graphemes are shown as letters of the alphabet. Below is the relationship of the three layers of language is Feez, 2002: 7. Figure 2.3 The Relationship of the Three Layers of Language adapted from Eggins, 1994 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 16 2.1.4. Literacy Approach Referring to Depdiknas 2003: 9, literacy approach is used as the appropriate approach in implementing a text­based syllabus, in which language education is aimed to prepare the students to be able to participate in modern society Hammond et al, 1992. There are seven literacy principles proposed by Kern 2000 as cited in Depdiknas 2004: 46. They are: a Interpretation In this principle, the writer interpret ideas, events, and experiences in his or her own way. After that, the reader interpret those things based on his or her own concept or knowledge. b Collaboration It is the writer’s obligation to give contribution in a form of motivation, knowledge, and experiences to be acknowledge by the audience or the students. c Convention The way people read and write are controlled by convention which had been modified according to the students needs. d Cultural knowledge Working in the cultural system is important since reading and writing function on certain values, believes, and habits. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 17 e Problem solving Words are always covered by linguistics and situation contexts. Therefore, reading and writing involve the knowledge of words itself, including problem solving on the relationship between words and texts. f Reflection and self reflection The writer and the reader should concern the language and how it refelected towards the world and her or himself. g Language use Language use is definitely the principle that designed for language education Agustien, 2005: 15. In this principle, language is used in spoken and written contexts to shape the discourse. Kern also connects the communicative language use dimension with structural dimension. The brief comparison is shown below: Table 2.2 The summary of structural, communicative, and literacy approach­based curriculum Kern, 2000: 304 as cited in Depdiknas, 2004: 48 Structural Emphasis Communicative Emphasis Literacy Emphasis Knowing Doing Doing and reflecting on doing in terms of knowing Usage Use Usage or use relations Language forms Language functions Form­functions relationship Achievement i.e. display of knowledge Functional ability to communicate Communicative appropriateness informed by metacommunicative awareness PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 18 Moreover, as quoted by Agustien 2005: 14, Wells 1991 classified four levels of literacy. They are performative, functional, informational, and epistemic levels. Those levels are elaborated as follows. a Performative level In this level, students are expected to be able to write what they say or to say what is written. It is appropriate to be literacy target if English is taught at Primary Schools. b Functional level In this level, students are able to be a member of particular society that participate in the creation of texts to serve their daily needs, such as reading a newspaper, manual, or instruction. It is the literacy target for Junior High School graduates. c Informational level In this level, students are expected to be able to access knowledge to communicate for academic purposes. Therefore, Senior High School students develop the communicative competence in spoken and written form to achieve this level. d Epistemic level In this level, students are able to inform knowledge to the target language. It is a literacy target for universities in Indonesia. Furthermore, literacy approach also emphasizes on teachers’ role as students facilitator in language learning. Using this approach, the process of PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 19 learning language is divided into stages and cycles, which consider the spoken and written language. The following parts clarify the scaffolding, the stages and cycles, and the differences of spoken and written language in literacy approach. 2.1.4.1.Scaffolding Scaffolding is a term used to describe that learning is collaboration between teacher and student with the teacher facilitates the students’ transition from assisted to independent performance Vygotsky 1978 as cited in Feez, 1998: 26. In this collaboration, language is always involved through dialogue between teacher and student. Below is the table that represents the collaboration between teachers and students Feez, 2002: 27. Table 2.3 The changing nature of the collaboration between teachers and students in response to learner progress SCAFFOLDING independent learner performance with no contribution from teacher LEARNER PROGRESS potential performance Diminishing contribution from teacher as learner’s independent contribution increases Significant contribution from teacher to support dependent contribution from learner zone of proximal development Learner’s entry level assessed by teacher existing independent functioning PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 20 Principally, through scaffolding teachers provide explicit knowledge and guided practice until the students can perform independently.

2.1.4.2. Cycles and Stages

Teaching English using literacy approach concerns with two cycles, called spoken cycle and written cycle Feez, 2002. Since advertisement, announcement, and invitataion are available in a form of spoken and written, this study also involved those two cycles. Moreover, Feez 2002: 28 also suggests the fifth stage called linking related texts that can be considered as alternative follow up. Building knowledge Modelling of Test of field ­cultural context ­cultural context ­social function ­shared experience ­ schematic structure ­control of relevant ­linguistis features vocabulary ­using spoken language ­grammatical patterns to focus on written test Independent Joint Construction of Text Construction of Text ­schematic structure ­schematic structure ­linguistic features ­linguistic features ­knowledge of field ­knowledge of field Figure 2.4 Stages and Cycles Hammond et al. 1992:17 Increasing approximatio n to control of written and spoken texts PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 21 Teaching learning activities consist of four stages. They are: Stage1: Building knowledge of the field In this stage, firstly students are introduced to the social context of an authentic model of the text type being studied. It means the students build the knowledge of the topic of the model text and knowledge of the social activity in which the text is used. Second, students explore features of the general cultural context in which the text­type is used and the social purposes the text type achieves. Third, students explore the immediate context of situation. Stage 2: Modeling and deconstructing the text The students in this stage are expected to investigate the structural pattern and language features of the model, and then compare the model with other examples of the text type. Modeling and deconstruction activities are undertaken at the whole text, clause, and expressions level. Stage 3: Joint construction of the text In this stage, students begin to contribute to the construction of whole example of the text type, while the teacher gradually reduces the contribution to the text construction, as the students move closer to being able to control the text type independently. Stage 4: Independent construction of the text In this stage, the students begin to work independently with the text. Their performances are used for achievement assessment. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 22 2.1.4.3.Spoken and Written Language Halliday 1985, as quoted by Agustien 2005, identifies that spoken language is characterized by grammatical intricacy; it contains many clauses with all kind of paratactic and hypotactic relations; it uses personal pronouns as subject, etc. In contrast, written language is characterized by lexical density; it uses noun phrases to realize subjects and objects; it often uses passive construction, etc. In the new curriculum, the differences and similarities of spoken and written language consider significant, because people learn spoken language first before they learn the written version Agustien, 2005. Hence, learners are expected to start from the spoken version and end up with written language.

2.1.5. Short Functional Text

According to the scopes of School–Based Curriculum for Senior High School, students should have ability to comprehend and create many kinds of short functional text Depdiknas, 2006. In this study, short functional text defined as a text that has practical function in helping human accomplishing their everyday life tasks. It is an authentic material used in teaching learning activities. The short functional texts can be in a form of notices, cards, posters, invitations, advertisements, etc. In this study, the texts are presented in a form of advertisement, announcement, and invitation. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 23 2.1.5.1.Advertisement The following are some characteristics of advertisement, including the definition and purpose, and kinds of advertisement.

2.1.5.1.1. Purpose of Advertisement

According to Amstell 1989 as cited by Marlina 2006, the most important purpose of advertisement is to deliver message or information to an audience for one reason or another, in order to influence and persuade them to believe or get interested in what is being advertised or offered. Advertisement is used as a medium to persuade or influence an audience.

2.1.5.1.2. Kinds of Advertisement

Bovee 1986, as cited by Widyatama 2007 classified advertisement into several categories. Two important classifications are advertisement based on its purpose, and advertisement based on its media. a Advertisement based on its Purpose Based on its purpose, advertisement is categorized in a type of commercial and social advertisement. 1 Commercial Advertisement Commercial advertisement is aimed to get economicalcommercial profit. The commercial advertisement is intended for the last consumer, institutions, or professionals. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 24 2 Public Service Advertisement Public Service Advertisement PSA aimed to get social benefit which can be seen from society development. The most popular social advertisement recently is dealing with education and environment. b Advertisement based on its Media Based on its media, there are two major categories of advertisement. First is above the line advertisement, including printed and electronic media such as newspaper, magazine, radio, television, and internet advertisement. Second is below the line advertisement, including poster, banner, etc. The other classifications according to Widyatama 2007: 79 are printed and electronic advertisement. The printed advertisement is existing in a form of line ad, column ad, display, and advertorial. Whereas the electronic advertisement presented in a form of radio ad including ad lib, spot, and sponsor program, and television advertisement including live action, animation, stop action, music, superimposed, backdrop, etc.

2.1.5.1.3. Language in Advertisement

The language of advertisement should be simple, well arranged, effective, and communicative, so that the advertisements are easy to be understood Wells, 1985. Most of advertisements depends on language to accomplish their purpose, to be able to grab the readers’ or the audiences’ attention. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 25 Both in spoken and written advertisements, language have specific functions. It is impossible to produce radio advertisement without language, and even an interesting video easy to understand without any language. Language of advertisement must be persuasive, either in style of narrative, descriptive, or expository. 2.1.5.2.Announcement Based on Wiki Online Dictionary 2010, the words ‘to announce’ means to make known. Furthermore, announcement in this study can be defined as something said, written or printed to make known what has happened or what will happen. An announcement generally consists of title or type of event, date or time or place, and contact person. Announcement can also be in a form of obituary, congratulation letter, etc. 2.1.5.3.Invitation According to Sudaryanto 2009, invitation has its purpose to invite someone to attend an occasion. Five parts should be present on an invitation are the addressee, salutation, the message, and the sender. Therefore, invitation has requirements as follows. 1 It should have an accurate addressee. 2 It gives clear time, place, and activity. 3 It express that the writer is looking forward to seeing person. 4 If there is a dress code, state it in the lower left­hand corner. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 26 2.1.6. Banathy’s Instructional Design Model Referring to Banathy 1976, education is a system, and a system contains subsystem. It can be implied that an instructional material is a system of education system. As a system is built upon three components, that are purpose, content, and process, there are six major parts in instructional system Banathy, 1976:17 .They are: 1 Formulating objectives Specifying a statement that spells out what we expect the learners to do, know, and feel as a result of his learning experience. 2 Developing test The test is develop based on the objectives and used to test terminal proficiency. 3 Analyzing learning task To find out what should be learned by the students. It consists of three parts: a the analysis of inventory of the learning task b the assessment testing and input competence c the identification and the actual learning task 4 Designing the system Develop a system which consists of four major strategies: a Functional analysis b Component analysis c Distribution of function among components d Scheduling of when and where the activity will be done PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 27 5 Implementation and testing The system designed are tested, implemented, installed, and evaluated. 6 Changing to improve the system The findings of the evaluation are fed back into the system to see what changes –if any­ are needed to improve the system. Figure 2.5 Banathy’s Instructional Design Diagram

2.1.7. Educational Research and Development

Educational research and development R D is a process used to develop and validate educational products. The goal of R D is to discover new knowledge or to answer specific questions about practical problems rather than only to develop products Borg and Gall, 1983:772. In other words, R D method take the research knowledge and incorporate the knowledge into a product that can be used in the schools. R D is developed to bridge the gap between research and practice. Formulation objectives Analyze learning task Design system Develop test Change to improve Implement test out PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 28 There are ten major steps in the R D cycle. They are: 1 Research and information collecting All review of literature, classroom observations, and preparation of report are collected at this step, in order to determine the state of knowledge in the concerned area. 2 Planning Planning is needed before developing the product. In this step, stating the objectives is the most important thing. Objectives become the best basis in developing the product in order to give the suitable guidance in developing product. 3 Develop preliminary form of product This step shows how the preliminary product is developed. It includes preparation of instructional materials, related knowledge needed, and evaluation devices. 4 Preliminary field testing Test on the preliminary product is conducted to get qualified evaluation of the product. The method used can be by interview, observation or distributing questionnaires. 5 Main product revision The data of the method used to test the product are then collected and analyzed. It results the feedback of the participants which used to revise the product. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 29 6 Main field testing The revised product is tested again to determine the success of the product in meeting its objectives. The test will result other information that can be used to improve the next revision. 7 Operational product revision This step is aimed to revise the revised product if the findings of main field testing find any weaknesses in the product, the first revision of the product is considered failed in meeting its objectives. 8 Operational field testing In this step, the second revision of the product is tested to determine whether the product is already complete. The new information that might be got from this step is usually not as much as the previous. 9 Final product revision The final product is carried out when the data has been analyzed and the product is considered complete. The final result of the revision can be used in the teaching learning process. 10 Dissemination and implementation Dissemination and implementation are needed if the final version of the product will be used to teach, Moreover, demonstration of dissemination is done in order to confirm that the product can be used. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 30 2.2.Theoretical Framework In order to answer the question of the problem formulation, the writer did a literature review related to the designing an instructional materials on advertisement, invitation, and announcement as short functional texts for Senior High School students. The framework of this design model proposed consists of five steps as follow. 1 Objectives Formulation Consider goals, list topics, and state the general purposes. It refers to the standard competence, basic competence, and indicators, based on School­ Based Curriculum. 2 Analyzing Learning Task This step focuses the study in analyzing the materials and exercises that will be used in the design of this study. Decide what materials should be learnt by the students will avoid inappropriate and unnecessary materials. 3 System Design The design includes spoken and written cycles in which each cycle consists of four stages. The stages are building knowledge of the field, modeling and deconstructing of the text, joint construction of the text, and independent construction of the text. 4 Implementation and Test Output The interview will be conducted in order to get feedback on the design. The subjects of the interview are three Senior High School English PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 31 teachers who are experienced in using short functional text in teaching learning activities. The result would be the consideration in improving the design. 5 Change to Improve The result findings used to improve and revise the designed materials. The result of the improvement would be the final product. To cover all steps in conducting this study, R D cycle is adopted. There are five steps of R D which become the method of this study. They are: 1 Collecting information In this first step, a library research is conducted, including the theory of School­Based Curriculum and short functional texts. The theories of the curriculum are syllabus and learning program plan. 2 Planning In designing the model of instructional materials, planning is consider important for the reason that it gives an outline on what to do and what are the important materials for the unit. 3 Developing the Preliminary of Product This step covers the exercises, instructions and pictures are combined into a good unit of short functional texts instructional materials. Moreover, related knowledge is also arranged carefully. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 32 4 Interviewing Participant The information gathered from the interview will be the consideration in improving the instructional materials on short functional texts. 5 Product Revision After interviewing participants, the data gathered is analyzed and the results will be used as feedback to improve the design. The relationship between the steps of Banathy’s instructional design and the steps of educational research and development is shown as below. Figure 2.6 The Relationship of Banathy’s Instructional Design and Educational Research and Development Objectives Formulation System Design Change to Improve Standard of Competencies Basic Competencies Indicators Spoken cycle à Four stages Written cycle à Four stages Analyze Learning Task Exercises and other knowledge Revise the units Collecting Information Planning Developing the Preliminary form of product Interviewing Participants Product revision Implementation and test output Tested some units by interviewing English teachers SBC and SFT PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 33 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This chapter discusses the methodology used in developing the design and some elements involved. As educational research and development is aimed to improve the quality of educational product Borg and Gall: 772, therefore, this study adopt R D cycle in its development. There were some steps used in this study, including collecting information, planning, developing the preliminary of product, interviewing participants, and product revision.

A. Collecting Information

This study was aimed to develop instructional materials on short functional texts. Therefore, a library research was conducted to get the theories about School­Based Curriculum, communicative competence, language model, literacy approach, and Banathy’s instructional design model; as well as finding short functional texts in a form of advertisement, announcement, and invitation. There were two kinds of short functional texts, spoken and written text. The short functional texts in a form of audio script were created and some were taken from functional texts in internet, and written texts were taken from English advertisement in newspapers, magazines, and internet. Those advertisement texts were compiled and compared in order to find good and suitable texts. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 34 B. Planning Planning is needed in designing the model of instructional materials. It gives an outline on what to do and what are the important materials for the unit. The figure of planning the unit in this study is shown below: Figure 3.1 The Planning of the Instructional Materials

1. Stating the Objectives

After completing the review of literature, the first thing to do was stating the objectives. As there were two cycles in the unit, the objectives of each cycle should be clearly stated. The spoken cycle would relate to listening and speaking skills, while the written cycle would relate to reading and writing skills. Suitable Text Objective of Spoken Cycle Objective of Written Cycle Appropriate Exercises Related Knowledge Mapping Stating Objectives Designing the Instructional materials Planning Pictures PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 35 Table 3.1 The objectives of the Instructional Materials Cycles Objectives Spoken Cycle 1. Listening The students are able to: 1.1. Comprehend and respond the meaning of short functional texts in any discourses 2. Speaking The students are able to: 2.1. Express the meaning of short functional in any discourses Written Cycle 3. Reading The students are able to: 3.1. Comprehend and respond the meaning of simple and short functional text in any discourses 4. Writing The students are able to: 4.1. Express the meaning of simple and short functional text accurately, fluently and grammatically correct in any discourses

2. Mapping

Some elements in designing the unit need to be mapped, including materials finding and editing. The elements mapped were the exercise, suitable short functional texts, and related knowledge. a. Mapping the exercise There were two kinds of exercise; individual and group exercise. b. Mapping the suitable texts The text used should be suitable for Senior High School students. In other words, the text should not be too easy or too difficult for the students’ level of English proficiency. The short functional texts were taken from PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 36 English advertisement, announcement, and invitation in newspaper, magazines, and internet. Meanwhile, the audio scripts were created. c. Mapping the related knowledge The knowledge included generic structure and language features of short functional texts in a form of advertisements, announcement, and invitation, gambits in responding invitation, kinds of advertisement and announcement, etc.

C. Developing the Preliminary Form of Product