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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the writer would like to present the review of related literature that becomes the basis for the discussion. The purpose of this chapter is
to obtain the better understanding about the basic principles of this study, so that the problems stated in the previous chapter can be answered.
In this chapter, there are two major points that are discussed. First, is theoretical description that discusses the related theories which become the basis
of the study, and second is theoretical framework that explains the steps in designing the materials.
A. Theoretical Description
In this part, the writer elaborates key points that are used in this study. They are the theories of Instructional Design Model, Research and development,
Integrated Materials, School-Based Curriculum 2006, Communicative Task, and Communicative Language Teaching.
1. Models of Instructional Design
Developing a set of integrated materials needs an instructional model to be followed. In this study, the writer referred to Kemp’s instructional model as the
main instructional model for the designed materials. The model will be discussed further in the following discussion.
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Kemp’s Instructional Design Model
The instructional model proposed by Kemp is a flexible model. The development process may start from any step and then move back and forth to the
other steps whenever the designer is ready. There are three important questions needed in instructional design stated by Kemp 1977: 68, namely:
1. What must be learned? the objectives 2. What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired
learning levels? activities and resources 3. How will we know the required learning has taken place? evaluation
The writer should consider those three elements as the basic of creating an instructional design. If one of them is missing, it means that the writer fails to
make a good design. In Kemp’s model 1977: 8, they are eight interdependent elements that
must be considered in designing instructional materials, those are:
Step 1: Determining the Goals, Topics, and General Purposes
In this step, the writer should decide the goals of the system, select the topic to be taught, and then specify the general purposes of each topic. In other words, this
step determines what the teacher wants to accomplish in teaching each topic Kemp, 1977: 13 – 16.
Step 2: Mentioning the Learners’ Characteristics
The aim of this step is to find out information about students’ needs, interests, and ability. This is a crucial step, because the students’ characteristics will influence
the emphases in instructional planning including the selection of topics and the
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level at which topics are introduced, the choice and sequencing of objectives, the depth of treatment, and the variety of learning activities Kemp, 1977: 18 – 22.
Step 3: Specifying the Learning Objectives
The writer determines the learning objectives in order to achieve certain students’ performances. It should be measurable and unambiguous so that the students are
able to accomplish the objectives. This step determines what the students should do or should be able to do Kemp, 1977: 23 – 42.
Step 4: Listing the Subject Content
In this step, the writer lists the subject content such as selecting and organizing the specific knowledge and skill to support each objective. Subject content includes
the organization of the content and task analysis. By doing task analysis, the designer can make sure that all elements of a procedure are considered in the
planning and will therefore be treated properly during instruction Kemp, 1977: 43 – 49.
Step 5: Developing Pre-Assessment
The aim of develop pre-assessment is to determine the learners’ background and to present level of knowledge about topic. Pre-assessment has two kinds of tests;
they are pre-requisite testing and pre-testing. A pre-requisite test is to determine whether the students have the appropriate background preparation for the topic.
Pre-testing is to determine which of the objective students may have already achieved Kemp, 1977: 50 – 54.
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Step 6: Selecting the Teaching learning Activities and Instructional Resources
In this step, the writer selects the teaching or learning activities and instructional resources that will treat to the subject content, so learners will accomplish the
objectives Kemp, 1977: 55 – 83.
Step 7: Coordinating Support Services
The support services include budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan. If one of the elements is missing, it
will affect the other elements. This shows that those elements have to be prepared to prevent any possible constraints in designing the plan Kemp, 1977: .84 – 90.
Step 8: Evaluating the Students’ Learning
The evaluation is conducted to test whether the materials are successfully implemented for the students and whether they have already met the objectives of
the study or not Kemp, 1977: 91 – 100. The figure which shows the relationship between one step to another steps is
presented below:
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Figure 1: Kemp’s Model 1977: 9 From the instructional model above, the writer would not use all of those
steps, some steps will be used and others will not be used.
2. Integrated Materials
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