Kanji countering an implicit expectation Kanji introducing the central conflict of the narrative

3.3.1 Kanji directly contradicting an idea explicitly expressed

Where kanji is used in direct contradiction, the second proposition which it introduces is always the more important. In the example below from 03 Hyena and Pied Crow, initially introducing Hyena and Pied Crow as friends, the import of the sentence is ‘Hyena and Pied Crow were friends, but they weren’t really friends’. Note that this is also an example of the use of kanji to present the thematic problem or conflict in a narrative see section 3.3.4 below. 03 Hyena and Pied Crow kanji used to directly contradict idea expressed in previous clause 1a. Litunu namu Nashove vanu ava kudyavalananga Hyena and Pied Crow people these were.friends 1b. kanji Nashove hashiwanawananga vila but Pied Crow he.was.not.going.around only Hyena and Pied Crow were great friends, but Pied Crow was not happy in their friendship…

3.3.2 Kanji in replacement focus constructions

This use of kanji is well illustrated in the replacement focus construction example below from 07 Mother and child. In this sentence there is a situation of prototypical contrast; that is, there is one point of similarity—what someone is like—and two points of difference—wife versus husband; brave versus cowardly. Note that the positive statement is given first, and then the negative. 07 Mother and child kanji in prototypical contrast construction 14b. nkongwe aju avele nkongwe namene woman this was woman very 14c. kanji nnume ntwagwe avele likule but man her.husband was coward “….that woman was very brave, unlike her fearful husband—what a coward” In the following example of replacement focus from 03 Hyena and Pied Crow, the positive statement that occurs first is that Hyena is a meat-eater, but despite this he will not eat his friend Pied Crow. Hyena and Pied Crow 5b 5a. Nangu ninkushulula mwiu I eat.meat true 5b. kanji wako O --- anikumamena. but You I.will.not.eat.” “I’m a carnivore, that’s true, but I’m not going to eat you.”

3.3.3 Kanji countering an implicit expectation

In the example from 07 Mother and child below, the narrator states that the Portuguese soldiers have invaded one of the Mpeme district villages. The expectation would be that the villagers would be in grave danger but they are not, because—as the narrator explains in a backgrounded statement—the villagers used to escape and hide out in the bush. 07 Mother and child kanji countering an implicit expectation 4a. Napanelo muliduva limo vandíinjila mulikaja limo lya pa Mpeme Now on.day one, they.entered in.village one of at Mpeme 4b. kanji vanu vashitukutangila namene kubondi. but people they.used.to.hide very at.low.country. Now one day, they went into one of the Mpeme district villages; people used to go and hide in the low country, however. In the example below, which starts off the peak episode, the narrator states in 39a and b that despite Ákalimanya’s greed and treachery, the villagers are persuaded by the elders not to retaliate, and they just watch how the situation develops. Sentence 40 then starts kanji, ‘however’, Ákalimanya receives his just reward despite the villagers’ non-retaliation when his children fall ill and everyone refuses to help. So the expectation raised implicitly by 39, that Ákalimanya is going to go unpunished, is countered in sentence 40. Ákalimanya 40a 39a. Tuvanu vapaludeya apalá kulola vila We.people of.at.village there looked only 39b. [ndoo] [ideophone] 40a. Kanji shinu ashi shindyaneka do But thing this was.seen thus, 40b. mushu mwake mo [AFTER VERB] vininkodya vilwele vikumene namene S. future his that they.met.him illnesses great very. 39 The rest of us in the village just kept quiet and watched. 40 But as it turned out, later on he had a problem with serious illness.

3.3.4 Kanji introducing the central conflict of the narrative

Kanji can be used in the orientation section of narratives to mark the introduction of the central, thematic conflict or problem of the narrative that will be resolved or not as the narrative develops. In the example below from 05 Fisherman, the narrator first presents the protagonist’s situation, saying that he is a fisherman. He then states—introduced by kanji—that his catch is only three fish a day, which means that he lives in extreme poverty. His futile attempts to increase the number of fish he catches are spelt out in the rest of the long introduction. 05 Fisherman kanji introducing the central conflict of the narrative 1b. munu aju madengo ake kuvele kwaka dyomba person this work his was to.hunt fish. 2. Kanji munu jojo aju S kila liduva mwashuukila kubali ashivabyaa dyomba dyake nnatu But person that this every day when.he.would. go to.sea he.used.to.kill.them fish his three. 1 ….and this man’s job it was to go fishing. 2 The fisherman went fishing every day, but all he would catch was three fish.

3.4 Na ‘and’