4 Participant reference
In Makonde, there is a wide range of ways in which to refer to participants and props within a text. The various options available to the narrator include: proper nouns i.e., names, simple nouns, nouns with
relative clauses or other qualifiers, nouns plus a range of demonstratives, pronouns, agreement on the verb only subject concord, and zero reference marking.
4.1 Introduction of participants
In Makonde, there are three different levels of participant introduction. The first is where a protagonist or other participant is introduced into a new mental representation, that is, into a new story setting. The
second is where a major participant is introduced into an existing mental representation, that is, into a setting that is already known to the audience. And the third is for minor participants, who can be
assumed within an existing mental representation without a formal introduction.
4.1.1 Introduction into a new mental representation
Introductions into a new representation occur in the orientation section, and usually involve the protagonist. The full formulaic introduction can include all of the following features: presentational
sentence articulation, use of the verb kupagwa ‘to exist’, a post-verbal subject, use of the numeral jumo ‘one’ and a relative clause. Generally not all of these are used in any individual instance, although they
can be. These formulaic features can be used in introductions both in folktales, and in true stories where the participants are not known to the listeners.
01 Horned animals introduction of protagonist showing postposed subject, use of verb ‘kupagwa’, use of
numeral ‘jumo’ and relative clause 6a.
Napanelo
[AFTER VERB]
kupagwa nyama jumo S
Now existed
animal one 6b.
wavanshamanga shingula
whom.they.call rabbit
6c. nae
have dimembe.
he has.not
horns Now there was once an animal called Rabbit, who doesn’t have any horns.
09 Ákalimanya true story; introduction of protagonist showing postposed subject, use of verb ‘kupagwa’
and use of numeral ‘jumo’ 3a.
Palikaja apalá
[AFTER VERB]
andípagwa nangolo jumo S
In.village that there.was
old.man one 3b.
lina lyake, ---
vashinshema Ákalimanya.
name his they.were.calling.him
Ákalimanya. In that village there was an old man called Ákalimanya.
An ‘existence-predication’ pair is where a participant is introduced, and the introduction is immediately followed by a description of that participant. In Makonde, one of the most interesting
features of introductions is that in many cases the ‘existence-predication’ pair includes a ‘topic frame’ see section 2.4 immediately following the introduction. This links the formulaic introduction with
essential information in both folktales and true stories. In 09 Ákalimanya sentence 4 below begins with the topic frame Ákalimanya aju nae ‘this Ákalimanya he’, immediately following the introduction of the
participant in the previous sentence see sentence 03 cited above.
09 Ákalimanya topic frame immediately following formulaic introduction of protagonist
4. Ákalimanya aju nae,
shimadengo shake shishiva
kulumbata. Ákalimanya this he
work his it.was.being
to.hunt. Now Ákalimanya was a hunter by trade.
In general, the shorter the formulaic introduction, the more likely it is to be followed by a topic frame description giving salient information; in some stories a topic frame takes the place of a formulaic
introduction. In 03 Hyena and Pied Crow below, the names Litunu namu Nashove ‘Hyena and Pied Crow’ open the whole narrative:
03 Hyena and Pied Crow topic frame substituting for a formulaic introduction
1a. Litunu namu Nashove vanu ava
kudyavalananga Hyena and Pied Crow
people these were.friends
Hyena and Pied Crow were great friends…
4.1.2 Introduction into an existing mental representation
