The peak episode sillcdd 29.

4a. Nangolo pashinu apalá --- andílaga maduva oe namene Elder at.place that had.suffered days many very 4b. --- ashanga mwakulota wondering how.to.want 4c. --- kuumila ligwangwa pangulo apa. to.remove bone at.throat this. Now one day, while he was eating his meat, a bone got stuck in his throat. Old Lion was there in awful pain for many days, at a complete loss as to how to get the bone out of his throat.

1.3 Developmental episodes

In developmental episodes the conflict or problem is developed, moving towards the resolution: there may be many successive developmental episodes, depending on the length and complexity of the narrative. Developmental episodes show a wide variety of discourse features, depending on their role in the narrative. In Makonde narratives, they frequently contain a high proportion of speech. Although there is great variation between developmental episodes, they do have some common features. These features are described in more detail in the following sections of this study, and will only be referred to here in summary. The first feature is the use of points of departure and connectives. Developmental episodes DEs frequently start with a point of departure. I refer to the temporal point of departure muliduva limo ‘one day’, introducing the DE no. 1 in 03 Hyena and Pied Crow section 2.1, and perfective tail-head structures such as: tukawike apalá ‘when we arrived there’ opening the DE no. 3 in 09 Ákalimanya, section 2.5.1. Developmental episodes are also often introduced with a connective; the one most frequently is napanelo ‘then, now’. It is used almost invariably for the introduction to the inciting episode, but is also used for introducing developmental episodes, such as 01 Horned Animals 7a at the beginning of DE no. 1 section 3.2. Another feature of developmental episodes in Makonde narratives is that subjects are usually made explicit even if there has not been any participant switch. This occurs both at the beginning and end of episodes. See for example the explicit participant marking in 01 Horned Animals 10a opening DE no. 2 section 4.2.2.2.1, and in 01 Horned Animals 13a, closing the same episode. The default narrative is used extensively in developmental episodes. In addition, the past perfective is often used for introducing new episodes. This occurs more frequently in the inciting episode, the denouement and the conclusion, but can also happen in developmental episodes. See for example 09 Ákalimanya 16a, where this tense introduces DE no. 2 section 5.1.2.

1.4 The peak episode

The peak episode, which brings the story to its climax, is often highly-charged. This may be reflected in new discourse features, which mark a distinction between the end of the developmental episode and the climax described in the peak episode. As in some other Bantu languages, there is a change in the use of verb tenses in the peak episode in Makonde. The default narrative does not drop out entirely. In some cases, such as 07 Mother and child the default narrative continues to be used as the main tense, but this tends to occur in very short succinct peak episodes. Usually, some use of the default narrative is maintained, but with a much higher representation of other verb tenses as well. In the example below, in the non-speech text of the peak episode from 09 Ákalimanya, there are three other verb forms and just one default narrative note that the anterior tense and the -ka- consecutive are both tense-aspects which give prominence in different ways to the action that follows them see sections 5.1.4 and 5.1.6 below: 09 Ákalimanya reduced use of default narrative tense in peak episode 40a. Kanji shinu ashi shindyaneka ANTERIOR do But thing this was.seen thus, 40b. mushu mwake mo [AFTER VERB] vininkodya ANTERIOR vilwele vikumene namene S. future his that they.met.him illnesses great very. 41a. Vanavake kuula DEF NARR Children.his got sick 41b. akashidoni -KA- NARRATIVE he.said. thus, 41c. mwenu ngupwashela “youpl help.me 41d. tuke kushipitali let’s.go to.hospital.” But as it turned out, later on he had a problem with serious illness. His children got sick, and he was saying, “Please help me, let’s go to the hospital.” What is also interesting is that the peak episode is composed either completely or mostly of speech in more than half of the texts in this text corpus. This affects the features shown very significantly. For one thing, it tends to mean that in many cases the action is not spelt out: the audience is expected to draw conclusions from what has been said. For example, in the peak episode of 08 Archbishop below, where the church women have laid out cloths on the ground to welcome the bishop, his speech simply finishes with the question ‘who told you to do that’? This question is not answered, and the women are not explicitly told to take the cloths away. The audience understands from the peak episode speech that this reception committee has been stopped, which is confirmed by the denouement which states that ‘the thing was not done’ and that the women were very embarrassed. Note that the speech introducer até doni introducing this peak episode declaration uses the anterior tense, the only speech introducer in the corpus to do so see section 5.1.4 below. 08 Archbishop peak episode comprised of speech; action left to be inferred 8a. Vakamwau - lile nae até doni: When.they.told. him, he said thus: 8b. um nangu hangunava shinu Nnungu. “No, I I.am.not not.at.all God. 9a. Lyutu ali O apagwa Nnungu S Place this is.being God, 9b. nangu - nimunu vila I - I.person only 9c. na shinu ashi O alamulidilé nyani? and thing this he.ordered.you who?” Another example of this is in 02 Lion and hamerkop, where the peak episode is comprised entirely of Lion’s speech, showing his ingratitude, the key point of the narrative. 02 Lion and hamerkop peak episode comprised of speech; participant’s reaction is theme of narrative 19. Wako undyoko wako utangola nyamani? “You child you you.say what? 20a. Nangu ninnambwalele aijá I I.have.thanked that.one, 20b. akalambwaladile nae S he.should.thank he 20c. --- atwete lundomo lwake he.who.took beak his 20d. --- kujela nkanywa mwangu to.stick in.mouth my 20e. nangu bila kunkwanga lino. I without to.scratch tooth.” 21. Aijá nangu nikaninnuma aijá. That.one I I.could.have.chewed that.one.” 19 Lion replied, “You pipsqueak, what are you on about? 20 You think I should have thanked him? It’s he that should have thanked me, for letting him stick his beak into my mouth without me sinking my teeth into him. 21 I could have crunched him up.” In other Bantu languages it has been observed that features such as interjections, a slowing down of the action usually through repetition, and over-specification of referents usually in these examples through use of independent pronouns are often found in peak episodes. 6 In the Makonde corpus these features are predominantly found when the peak is communicated in speech, and much less so where the peak is a reported event in narrative. In the peak episode from 03 Hyena and Pied Crow below, the independent pronouns have been highlighted in red. They all occur within speech. Vocatives with person markers you.my-friend have been included, as the person marker is not obligatory, compare nyangu ‘my.friend’ in 22f and unyangu ‘you.my.friend’ in clauses 24 and 25b. Note also the repetition of the theme of friendship ending, in clauses 23 and 25a, and the interjections ee and um in clauses 22c and 25b ee, unusually, is outside speech. 03 Hyena and Pied Crow peak episode showing high density of independent pronouns within speech 22a. Patandile doni --- akamule inyama When.he.did thus he.should.hold meat 22b. napanelo --- ashapole now he.should.break.piece 22c. ee Nashove kuuluka yes Pied Crow flew 6 See van Otterloo, R. 2011 section 1.2.4; Eaton, H. 2011 section 1.3.4; and Nicolle, S. 2011 section 1.3.4. 22d. kwikala pashanya ingande apalá sat above on.house there 22e. kudo: said: 22f. Nyangu nne dashi? “My.friend I.said how? 23. Wako namu nangu O imbodi haipali. You with me friendship does.not.exist. 24. Wako unyangu unkushulula namene. You you.my.friend you.are.eating.meat very. 25a. Imbodi ai itimbikangila popo apa Friendship this it.ends right.here here 25b. mwaa unyangu S um unkumamodya because you.my.friend no you.are.getting.worse 25c. liduva na liduva wako S nangu O unangumamena. day and day You me you.will.eat.me.” 22a But then just as he took hold of Pied Crow, about to break off a piece of meat, Pied Crow suddenly flew up and perched up on top of the house. He said, “Didn’t I say so, Hyena? 23 This is the end of our friendship. 24 Your problem is that you’re such a meat-eater. 25 And right here is where we stop being friends, because you’re getting worse and worse—and one of these days you’ll end up by eating me.” The peak episode in 04 Elephant and Nightjar is also mostly speech, this time a tight-knit conversation, and shows repetition of the theme, and also a frequent use of interjections. The theme is the loss of Elephant’s appetite, leading shortly to his death from hunger, and this theme is drawn out as the wife continues to press him to eat something, and Elephant continues to refuse. The interjections are marked in red. 04 Elephant and Nightjar peak episode showing slowing down of action and frequent use of interjections 28a. Nae - She, 28b. ii hashinapagwa shinu “No, doesn’t.exist not 28c. ashikutishanga vila ajo S she.was.threatening.you only that.one 28d. wako ikala apa you stay here 28e. ulye you.eat 29a. Nae --- do: He thus, 29b. gwe Wako haunatangole davo “[interjection] You don’t.talk like.this 29c. nangu S po panguvele apa hanguve dimongo I where.I.am here I.don’t.have strength. 30a. Mwiu --- andidikila apalá Truly he.bent.down there, 30b. ndyagwe --- do: his.wife thus, 30c. mene twala shakulya ashi “No take food this 30d. ulye you.eat.” 31a. Kudo: Say.thus: 31b. aa nangu O kulya aku hakunangunagwela shinu “Aah, I eating this is.not.pleasing.me nothing.” 32. Kumwisho kwake nangolo Nnembo andípela At.end his old.one Elephant died. 28 “No,” she said, “it’s all nonsense; she was just making empty threats. Now you sit down here and have something to eat.” 29 “You watch out,” he replied, “you don’t know what you’re talking about—I feel all weak.” 30 He sat with bent head; his wife said to him, “Go on, just take this food and have something to eat.” 31 He said, “Don’t bother me, I just don’t feel at all like eating.” 32 And in the end old Elephant died. The unusual peak episode is that in 05 Fisherman, which although being entirely non-speech narrative text, shows the features of increased vividness and detail that have been observed in other Bantu languages. 7 Not only are there two different ideophones one repeated three times in the following examples, but also two highly marked structures, a conjoint verb and a ni copula see sections 6.3.2 and 6.3.3. The ideophones are marked in red. In this peak episode the protagonist, after receiving all that he could desire as a gift from a magic bird, loses it through his breaking of the only prohibition he is given. Here, after opening the forbidden door, he whirls through darkness and finds himself back in his boat. 05 Fisherman peak episode showing increased vividness see use of ideophones 35a. Shinantandi kumevo O kumwidile [conjoint anterior] kudimba S First to.eyes came.to.him darkness 7 See especially van Otterloo, R. 2011 section 1.2.4. 35b. ni [copula] it.is 35c. palipindikulila do: where.somersaults thus: 35d. pindiku pindiku pindiku nalikodya [ideophone repeated] and.he.found.himself 35e. andiikala mo mwingalava amu kavili he.has.sat in.that boat this again 35f. shanjaa ankutambisha kavili na indawana yake [ideophone ] he.is.fishing again with hook his. Suddenly he was plunged into darkness and found himself rolling and somersaulting, tossed over and over, until—there he found himself sitting down back in his boat, sitting there again at his fishing line.

1.5 The denouement