Bai used to resume the event-line Bai used developmentally

3.6 Bai ‘so’

Bai is used in narrative text, but not as frequently as in speech. The most common use of bai in narratives is resumptive, resuming the event-line after an explanation or other backgrounded statement. Bai is also used developmentally to mark a step forward in the author’s purpose, often in combination with a resumptive function.

3.6.1 Bai used to resume the event-line

In the example from 04 Elephant and Nightjar below, bai is used resumptively after a backgrounded statement of explanation in 05b, where the narrator explains that as Nightjar is a bird, she lays eggs. Thus, bai takes the listener back to the event-line, where the elephant is continuing to move towards the place where the nightjar has her nest on the ground. 04 Elephant and Nightjar bai used resumptively after backgrounded statement 5d. mwaa Nalubwabwa ataila mai because Nightjar lays eggs 5e. pakuva shuni since bird. 6a. Bai Nnembo ankwida tu So Elephant he.is.coming just 6b. --- ankulya tu he.is.eating just. 5 …since Nightjar’s a bird, she lays eggs. 6 So Elephant keeps on coming, and keeps on eating. In the example below from 07 Mother and child, after stating in clause 4a that the Portuguese soldiers entered one of the Mpeme district villages, the narrator notes in a backgrounded statement of explanation that people used to hide down in the bushcountry implied information: whenever the soldiers came into a village. The event-line is then resumed in 5a with Bai as the narrative returns to the specific day in question when the soldiers occupied the village, where—as the listener is about to discover—the protagonist lives with her husband and child. 07 Mother and child bai used resumptively after backgrounded statement 4a. Napanelo muliduva limo vandíinjila mulikaja limo lya pa Mpeme Now on.day one, they.entered in.village one of at Mpeme 4b. kanji vanu vashitukutangila namene kubondi. but people they.used.to.hide very at.low.country. 5a. Bai ndege S kushanya kwomba So aeroplane above bombed 4 Now one day, they went into one of the Mpeme district villages; people used to go and hide in the low country, 16 however. 5 So an aeroplane went overhead dropping bombs, and the infantry went over the ground below.

3.6.2 Bai used developmentally

In the example below from 09 Ákalimanya, bai is used developmentally: the theme of the story is how Ákalimanya, the protagonist, has eventually to leave the village as he defrauds the other villagers of their fair share of the elephant meat that they have trapped together. Here the villagers are drawing the conclusion together that he needs to be expelled. 09 Ákalimanya bai used developmentally to mark step forward in narrator’s purpose 36a. Bai kwanjangidya popo po So began then.very then, 36b. vanu vandiikala people they.sat 36c. kushidoni said. thus, 36d. tummingange “we.should.expel.him 36e. nkaja mwetu amu ---- hanapagwe. village ours this --- he.should.not.exist. So then people began to discuss it, saying, “We ought to expel him from our village; he shouldn’t live here any more.” In the example below from 01 Horned Animals, the leader of the horned animals has just spotted Rabbit, whose disguise of wax horns has melted in the heat. Here the story moves rapidly from his speech of surprise and horror to the peak episode, where he gives the order to have Rabbit killed. 01 Horned Animals bai used developmentally to mark step forward in narrator’s purpose 18a. Bai nangolo aju S kutwa kulamulila So elder this then ordered 18b. kuntwala shingula aijá they.took.him rabbit that 18c. kuntanola they.killed.him So the leader gave the order and Rabbit was taken away and killed… 16 The Makondes live on a plateau; and the land below the escarpment of the plateau is known as the ‘low country’. 4 Participant reference In Makonde, there is a wide range of ways in which to refer to participants and props within a text. The various options available to the narrator include: proper nouns i.e., names, simple nouns, nouns with relative clauses or other qualifiers, nouns plus a range of demonstratives, pronouns, agreement on the verb only subject concord, and zero reference marking.

4.1 Introduction of participants