2.3 Procedure of Analysis
This analysis had been done in some steps. Firstly, the writer read some books about psychology and linguistics. Secondly, the writer read some books and
articles from internet about phonological units and rules. Thirdly, the writer recorded a talk show program to support this thesis, and then wrote them into
some sheets of papers. After having gained enough information about the study, the writer began to
write chapters after chapters attentively. Finally, the writer did some analysis about the speech errors found in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV, and
followed by making some conclusions.
2.4 Review of Related Literature
In complying this thesis, the writer had consulted some references concerned with the topic to support the idea of the analysis. Those references are:
- Hatch 1983. Psycholinguistics, A Second language Perspective. This book
helps the writer know how Psyholinguistics becomes a discipline of knowledge. This book also explains that Psychology and Linguists contribute
each other and become Psycholinguistics. -
Fodor 1974. The Psychology of Language. This book gives some information to the writer about the relationship beetween languange and Psychology.
- Donough 1984. Psychology in Foreign Language Teaching. This book
consists of ten chapters. It gives supporting information to the writer as well.
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- Neill 1970. The Acquisition of Language: The Study of Developmental
Psycholinguistics. This book contains some information about the possibility of speech errors made by human.
- Allen 1949. Priciples and Types of Speech. This book contains of 5 chapters.
In chapter 2, the writer found information about The Process of Preparing A Speech and in chapter 4 is about Adapting Speech to Radio and Television.
- Clark and Eve V. Clark 1977. Psychology and Language: An Introduction to
Psycholinguistics. This book is about Psycholiguistics and The classification of speech errors, which are closely concerned with the topic of this thesis.
- Devito 1984. The Elements of Public Speaking. This book consists of
necessary information about public speaking, which is related to the topic of this thesis.
- Goldsmith 1995. The Handbook of Phonological Theory. This book contains
the explanation about the Phonological units and rules. This book supports this thesis for the writer as well.
- Uebler 2006. A Speech Classification System. This article helps the writer
understand more about the the technique of speech classification and the usage of this technology in a set of scenarios.
- Inayah 2009. An Analysis of Speech Errors on SAS FM Radio Program: A
Psycholinguistics approach. This thesis gives the writer some information and references about psycholinguistics, especially about speech productions and
speech errors.
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- Lumbantobing 2009. Speech errors in interviews of Metro TV’s Indonesia
This Morning News Program. This previous thesis helps the writer to get many references of speech errors and know how to make the table of the central
analysis of speech errors.
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3. AN OVERVIEW OF` SPEECH PRODUCTION AND SPEECH ERRORS
3.1. A Description of Psycholinguistics
Language’s are very so important in the life of human being and we, the people who are concerned with this need it so bad. It means that all things we do
must get language involved in it. The writer has already mentioned before that languages play a very important
role in human beings life. Practically, people are now concerning with the use of language in
their daily life. Language has brought community into a new circumference.
Antilla 1972: 12 cites, A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which the members of a speech community social group
cooperate and interact communicate. In other words. language is a system of communication. Language is systematic rule-governed, non-random; it
shows predictability and systemic, which means that the total system is divided into subsystems. The definition includes the attribute vocal to
emphasize sound aver writing which is a historically secondary representation of primary speech.
Since languages are so ever present in human activities and thoughts and since they flow so easily from the tongue of human beings, it is possible on one
hand to oversimplify them in our thought and in our plans to study them. Thus, we often hear people who, upon meeting a native speaker of a different language,
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naively ask to be taught that language and wait right then for the process to begin. For some reasons we see people buying some that promise to teach a language
with great ease even without a teacher. It is obviously seen that many people learn a language for they really concern
with the development of the language itself. Some others use a language as the object of their research. The scientific study of a language is called Linguistics.
While the people who specialize their research on language is called linguists. The word linguistics is derived from the Latin lingua, which means language.
It is to describe and explain the structure of language used by certain language, but what we are talking here is apparently about general linguistics, which
generally studies about language in detail. Linguistics it self is divided into two parts that are furthermore known as macro and micro linguistics.
Psycholinguistics itself is included in macro linguistics, in n which this macro linguistics analyzes language by studying outer parts of language.
Psycholinguistics is a hybrid discipline created out of the psychologists interest in language and the linguists interest in psychology. The major concerns of
psycholinguistics are the psychological processes involved in encoding or speaking, in decoding or comprehending, and in acquiring language. Some would
claim that the ultimate aim of psycholinguistics is to describe the operation of the mind--or at least of that portion of the brain dealing with language.
Psycholinguistics is a field that combines methods and theories from psychology and linguistics to derive a fuller understanding of human language.
From psychology, it inherits experimental methodology and a body of knowledge,
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about processes in perception, memory, attention, learning, and problem-solving. From linguistics, it derives detailed descriptions of specific languages, rigorous
accounts of the shape of grammar, and ideas about the nature of human language Osgood and Sebeok : 1967. The basic issue that motivated the establishment of
psycholinguistics as a separate field of study was the problem of the ‘psychological reality’ of linguistic concepts. For example, speakers of English
can form the plurals of nouns by adding the suffix -s. This process allows us to form the plural chandeliers from chandelier. But do we actually use a productive
Rule to produce this plural or do we simply retrieve the plural chandeliers from our long-teen memory as a unit? Psycholinguistic research shows that, in fact,
both rote and rule are operative at various times in language production Pinker: 1999.This issue of psychological reality applies to all levels of language structure
and usage, including articulators phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonology, morphology, lexicon, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. It applies to all of the
constructs of linguistics, including rules, grammars, paradigms, trees, segments, words, and morphemes. When we hear words, do we break them up into their
component phonemes and distinctive features see Phonology, or do we recognize them as wholes? When we listen to sentences, do we actually construct
treelike representations of the types proposed by linguists or do we somehow extract meaning without building up formal structures? If we do use formal
grammars to listen and speak, what is the exact shape of the grammars that we use? Exploration of the psychological reality of linguistic structures immediately
leads us to two related fields of study. The first if developmental
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psycholinguistics, or the study of child language acquisition Fletcher and MacWhinney : 1995. If we believe that adults form the plurals of nouns by
adding -s, we need to consider how young children can learn to apply this rule to produce cats and not foots or tooths. If we argue that they simply learn each
form by rote, how can we account for the fact that they make errors like feets and the fact that they can produce the plural for a new word like wug even without
having been given that form explicitly? An even more difficult issue involves how rules of might be processed in the brain. Addressing this is question has led
psycholinguistics to explore issues in neuro linguistics Stemmer and Whitaker:
1998 and cognitive neuroscience Gazzaniga : 1997. When the field of psycholinguistics first developed in
the 1950s, psychologists knew little about the detailed functioning of the human brain and were forced to treat it as a black box.
However, as our understanding of the functioning of the human brain grew during the 1980s and 1990s, it became clear that a precise understanding of the
functioning of human language would have to make reference to neural mechanisms. The interactive approach to cognition McClelland and Rumelhart :
1986 used artificial neural networks to model the processing of human language. Directly opposed to connectionism was Fodors 1983 modular approach to
cognition that emphasized the independence of separate cognitive modules for each level of linguistic structure. Researchers have attempted to test the
contrasting predictions of the interactive and modular approaches using standard experimental methodology. However, this work has indicated that neither of the
strong positions can be maintained Simpson: 1994. Psycholinguists are now
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trying to link experimental methodology to methods for the imaging of the human brain during language processing. On this level, it appears that processing works
in terms of interactive modules. There are some areas of Psycholinguistics, which are: spoken word
recognition, sentence comprehension, sentence production, message construction, memory limitations, and cross-linguistic comparisons. In addition to these core
areas, psycho-linguists are involved in the study of reading, conversational interaction, figurative language, text comprehension, aphasia, child language
disorders, gesture, prosody, neuro linguistic imaging, animal communication, and language evolution Some of linguists have made their own definitions of
Psycholinguistics in diffrenet point of views. Langacker in
Umar and Napitupulu : 36cites, “Psycholinguistics is the study of language acquisition and linguistic behavior, as well as the psychological
mechanism responsible for them.” The definition above emphasizes on the limitation between language acquisition and linguistic behavior. The
acquisition of language is closely concerned with the language learning, otherwise, linguistic behavior relates to the process of competence and
performance. The process of competence and performance are at all times, with other words, the mechanism of Psychology has a very important role.
Stem 1983: 296 cites, psycholinguistics deals directly with the process of encoding and decoding as they relate states of message to state communicators.
This definition stresses on the process of encoding and understanding to the codes delivered between speaker and listener. Both these process, decoding and
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encoding take place in human mind. The speaker and listener hold an important role in this case. The speaker delivers her or his messages in codes, later on, the
listener will try to perceive the meaning of the codes. That is the reason why it needs mutual understanding between the speaker and listener.
Diebold in Slama, 1973: 39 cites, Psycholinguistics is concerned in the broadest sense with relation between messages and the characteristics of human
individuals who select and interpret them.” Psycholinguistics in the broadest sense simply talks about the relationship between messages delivered and human
characteristics in selecting
,
and interpreting these messages. Paul Fraisse in
Slama, 1973: 39 cites, Psycholinguistics is the study of relations between our needs for expression and communication and the means
offered to us by a language learned in ones childhood and later. In this way, the limitation emphasizes on the relationship between our need of expression in
communication and all the things offered to us through language that we have been learning in our life.
Hartley in Umar and Napitupulu.- 35 cites, Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind in processing and producing utterances and
language acquisition.What we can take in this statement is how acquisition of language works. It is human brain that processes language to produce any
utterances. This is the process of how we can get known the process occurs and as it has meaningful unit which further more can be understood by the hearer.
After having collected some linguists views on Psycholinguistics, we can further have some ideas on that. These ideas can be such important and even
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crucial in discussing about Psycholinguistics. It can be summarized that psycholinguistics discuss about the process of how people produce language. In
interpreting a language, people generally have and follow a set of accepted rules that is concerned with sounds and meanings. If we want to perceive the meanings
of listening and speaking, we get to perceive also the meaning of relation between language structure and the process of listening and speaking. The accepted rules
of language structure are usually called Grammar. Grammar helps the study of listening and speaking, therefore, it has been so
important for the psychology of language. These rules summarize regularities in the
behavior of people speaking a language. Grammatical rules will then lead us toward the understanding of basic law of thought and the nature of human
intelligence. Noam Chomsky got to divide this into two. They are competence and performance.
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3.2. Competence and Performance