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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, two parts are discussed. They are theoretical description and theoretical framework. Theoretical description describes some literatures that
are used to design the materials. Theoretical framework is used as the theoretical guideline in designing materials.
A. Theoretical Description
In the theoretical description, four parts are discussed. They are Instructional Design, Teaching Writing to English as Foreign Language EFL Students, the
Theory of Process-Based Approach, and School-Based Curriculum KTSP.
1. Instructional Design Models
In designing material, the researcher applies Kemp’s model and Yalden’s model. The following are brief explanations about the two models.
a. Kemp’s Model
Kemp 1977:7 states that there are eight steps in designing an instructional design. The steps are:
1. Consider goals, list the topics, and state the general purposes for teaching
each topic. 2.
Enumerate the important characteristics of the learners. 3.
Specify the learning objectives in terms of behavioral outcomes 4.
List the subject contents that support each objective 5.
Develop pre-assessment to determine the students’ background knowledge
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6. Select teachinglearning activities and resources
7. Choose some support services such as budget, equipment, facilities
8. Evaluate the students’ accomplishment to do revision and reevaluation of
the design in order to make improvement. Kemp also says that those eight steps are a flexible process since a designer
may start the planning from any step that is ready to move back on any step to others. Below is the description about the eight steps of Kemp’s instructional
model.
Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Model Kemp, 1977:9
The steps of the Kemp’s instructional model are explained as follows.
Goals, topics,
And General
Purposes Evaluation
Learning Objectives
Supports services
Teaching Learning
activities, resources
Pre ‐
assessment Subject
Content
Revise
Learner characteristics
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1 Consider Goals, Topics, and General Purposes
Instructional design planning starts with the recognition of the broad goals of the school system or institution. The goals may be derived from three sources;
they are society, students, and subject areas. After establishing the goals, a designer should list the major topics to be treated within the content area. After
that, the designer expresses explicitly the general purposes for the chosen topics.
2 Identify Learners’ Characteristics
In teaching-learning activity, the students are regarded as individuals and groups. To serve the students both in individuals and groups, we must obtain
information about learners’ characteristics. Learners’ characteristic includes two factors; they are academic factor and social factor. Academic factor includes
academic background, level of intelligence, number of students, reading level, study habit, grade-point average, scores on standardized achievement and aptitude
tests, ability to work alone, motivation for studying the subject, background in the subject or topic, expectation of the course. Social factors include age, maturity,
attention span, special talents, physical and emotional handicaps, relations among students and socioeconomic situation.
3 Specify Learning Objectives
Kemp 1977: 24 says that learning objectives may be categorized into three categories. They are cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. Cognitive domain is
mostly used in educational program. It includes objective concerning knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis and evaluation. In planning process, the
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planner should consider the action verb that is used in specifying the learning objectives because each verb relates to certain level of objectives.
4 Organize Subject Content
A student’s learning experiences must involve subject content that relates the objectives to the students’ needs. In his book, Kemp 1977: 44 defines subject
content as the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step procedures, conditions, and requirements, and
attitudinal factors of any topics. Subject contents support the objectives.
5 Develop Pre-assessment
Pre-assessment is conducted to answers two questions; they are 1 is the students prepared to study the topic or unit? And 2 is the student competent in
some of the stated objectives? In order to answer those questions, a test is needed. There are two kinds of test. The first is prerequisite test which aims to gain
information whether the students have appropriate preparation for the topic. It enables the teacher to know who are ready to learn the topic, who need the
remedial or even who are not ready yet and should start from the beginning level. The other test is pre-testing that aims to determine which of the objectives
students may already have achieved.
6 Plan the TeachingLearning Activities and Resources
In conducting the teaching-learning process, a teacher must determine the appropriate methods and then select the materials to provide learning experiences
that will utilize the content associated with the objectives. To support the learning
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activities, teacher should also concerns about the selection of materials that can motivate the students and effectively explain the subject content. Besides, it is
also important for the teacher to determine the media to support teaching-learning activity.
7 Organize Support Services
Teacher should organize the support services carefully. Support services include fundbudget, facilities, equipment, time and schedule. In organizing
budget, a teacher should concern about two kinds of budgets. Those are budget during the development, which covers all budget needed during the preparation of
the program, and budget during the implementation which covers all budgets which covers all budget needed during the implementation of the program.
8 Evaluation
In this step, the teachers are ready to measure the result of learning and the learning objectives. In this case, the teachers should determine standards of
achievement. The measurement can be in a form of evaluation. There are two kinds of evaluation. They are formative which is done during development and
tryouts and summative evaluation which is done at the end of the course. Evaluation also refers the evaluation of program. To evaluate the program, Kemp
1977: 98 said that evaluation program can be done in several ways; they are 1 test results, 2 reactions from the students, 3 observations of students at work,
4 suggestion from colleagues.
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In designing the model, another instructional model is also used. The next instructional model is Yalden’s model.
b. Yalden’s Model
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