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b. Participants
The participants are the people involved in the communication found in the setting. A good public speaker for example, wants to know about
hisher audience the participants before performing a speech. Heshe may think of considering what kind of jokes heshe should tell or whether
heshe should speak in a more casual way or formal one after considering the audience.
c. Ends
The ends are the goals or purposes that a speaker wishes to reach. If a political party delivers a speech in a campaign, heshe wishes to persuade
the crowd before himher in order to receive support for the election. However, if a mother speaks to her son before he lives for school, she
might want her son to behave himself in the school. Thus, for different ends, speakers of a language often choose different code.
d. Act Sequence
The act sequence refers to the order of a speech, a narrative, a conversation, or a talking. It also refers to the form and the content of the
speech.
e. Key
The key is referred to the manner, spirit, and feeling of the message wished to be captured within the conversation. It is also referred to the
spirit captured in the voice or manner of a speaker. The spirit or the feeling may be sincere, modest, or low.
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f. Instrumentalities
The Instrumentalities are referred to the register and forms of the speech. The forms that might be under consideration are whether it will be
delivered in a more formal way or a casual friendly one.
g. Norms of Interaction and Interpretation
The norm of interaction is the contextual custom in using the code, including for example allowance for an interruption, using gestures
freely, addressing an audience, eye contacts, distance, asking questions about belief, etc.
h. Genre
The genre is referred to the type of the utterances whether it is in the form of a poem, a proverb, a prayer, a lecture, and etc.
The factors described above have been one of the most important foundations in the general study of code choices. In a conversation we might not find the factors
to be activated all together. To certain degree these factors in choosing a code might be also helpful to describe factors that influence other forms of language contact
phenomenon, namely code switching and code mixing.
2.3.1 Code Switching
There is situation where speakers deliberately change a code being used, by switching from one to another. People are usually required to select a particular code
whenever they choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to
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another even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code in a process known as code switching.
Wardaugh, 1986:100 says code switching is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, change interpersonal
relation with their rights and obligation. Hymes in Chaer, 1995:142 states that code switching has become a common term for alternate use of two or more language,
varieties of language, or even speech styles. In code switching, the speaker changes the code as heshe redefine the situation, formal to informal, official to personal,
serious to humorous, and politeness to solidarity. Wardaugh 2010:101 describes two kinds of code switching, namely
Situational Code Switching and Metaphorical Code Switching.
1. Situational Code Switching
Situational Code Switching occurs when the language used change according to the situations in which the conversant find themselves: they speak one language in
one situation and another in a different one. No topic change involved. Here is the example:
Agus : Menurutku, semuanya karena mereka tidak tahu persis artinya De. Mark : Hi, Agus.
Agus : Eh, how are you Mark? Mark, this is Made, our friend from Mataram. Made : Nice to meet you, Mark.
Mark : Nice to meet you too. What are you talking about? Agus : Nah, ini dia kita bisa... Mark, can you help us?
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2. Metaphorical Code Switching
Metaphorical Code Switching occurs when a change of topic requires a change in the language used. The interesting point here is that some topics may be
discussed in either code, but the choices of code a distinct flavor to what is said about the topic. Here is the example:
Made : We want to take it, to where... Ya, itu tempat kita biasa mancing, and we are drinking, singing, having fun, OK.
Ali : And, there we are surfing, swimming... terus, kita jadi pusing pusing dah...
ha ha ha... Made : Are you joining, Jim?
Jim : Okay, then.
2.3.2 Causal Factors of Code Switching
From the definitions above, it is learned that code switching is found more with bilingual or multilingual speakers, although monolinguals may actually be said
to switch from a variety or style to another. Jendra 2010:74 says that several reasons why bilinguals do code switching. Among the most obvious factors are
namely, quoting someone, marking and emphasizing group identity or solidarity, including or excluding someone from a conversation, raising status, and showing
language expertise.
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Ohowaitun 1996:71, states that the case code switching happens for some factors such as the relationship between the speaker and the listener, the purpose of
speaking, the discussed topic, time and place the conversation takes place.
Fishman in Chaer, 1995:143 states in accordance to the causal factors of code switching that is ‘siapa berbicara’, ‘dengan bahasa apa’, ‘kepada siapa’,
‘kapan’, dan ‘dengan tujuan apa’ ‘who speak’, ‘what language’, ‘to whom’, ‘when’,
and ‘to what end’ .
2.3.3 Code Mixing
Code mixing is a mixing of two codes or languages, usually without a change of topic. Code mixing is the change of one language to another within the same
utterance or in the same oralwritten text. Code mixing is found mainly in informal interactions. In formal situation, the speaker tends to mix it because there is no exact
idiom in that language, therefore, it is necessary to use words or idioms from other language, as stated by Nababan 1993:32
“Ciri yang menonjol dalam campur kode ini adalah kesantaian atau situasi informal. Dalam situasi berbahasa yang formal,
jarang terdapat campur kode. Kalau terdapat campur kode dalam keadaan yang demikian, itu disebabkan karena tidak ada
ungkapan yang tepat dalam bahasa yang dipakai itu, sehingga perlu memakai kata atau ungkapan dari bahasa asing.”
Code mixing is the mixing of pieces of a word or phrase from a language into the other language in a bilingualism and multilingualism. The bilingual or
multilingual usually mix their language because of the social factors. People sometimes are aware when they mix their language with pieces of words or phrase
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from other language. This means that in code-mixing, bilinguals or multilingual usually inserts phrases or words from other language when heshe has a conversation,
they mix a language with the other language. The sentences below are the samples of Code Mixing cases of bilinguals
single utterance in which a form of Code Mixing involves Indonesian, English, Spanish, Japanese.
• A Spanish bilingual mixes Spanish and English, e.g:
No van a bring it up in the meeting. Jendra, 2010:81 •
A Japanese bilingual mixes Japanese and English, e.g: Watashi was waseda graduate shimashita. in Azuma, 1993 in Jendra,
2010:81. Wardaugh 2010:98 divides code mixing into two kinds named Inter-sential
code mixing and Intra-sential code mixing.
1. Inter-sential code mixing
An inter-sential code mixing happens when there is a complete sentence in a foreign language uttered between two sentences in a base
language. For the example: •
An Indonesian bilingual mixes Indonesian and English, e.g. Ini lagu lama, tahun 60an. It’s oldies but goodies, they say. Tapi, masih enak
kok didengerin. •
A Spanish bilingual mixes Spanish and English, e.g. No. Se porque. I never used it.
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2. Intra-sential code mixing
Intra-sential code mixing is found when a word, a phrase, or a clause, of a foreign language is found within the sentence in a base language. For
example: •
An English bilingual mixes English and French, e.g. The hotel, il est grand, is really huge and unbelievably majestic.
• A Tanzania bilingual mixes Swahili and English, e.g. He accident
ilitokea alipose control Na Aka overturn and landed in a ditch. Suwito 1983:76-78 devides code mixing in two kinds. They are:
1. Inner Code Mixing campur kode kedalam
“Campur kode kedalam inner code mixing adalah campur kode yang bersumber dari bahasa asli dengan segala variasinya”. Inner code mixing
occurs if the speaker inserts the elements of hisher own language into national language, the elements of dialect into hisher own language, or
elements of varieties and style into hisher dialect. Code mixing and the elements of a regional language show that the speaker has a regional language
in stuff, or want to show his regional language characteristic. 2.
Outer Code Mixing campur kode keluar “Campur kode keluar outer code mixing adalah campur kode yang
berasal dari bahasa asing”. For example, the elements of Holland code switching inserted in Indonesian language. It shows that the speaker belongs
to the old century, students and special manwoman. Code mixing in English
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language can give the impression that the speaker is a modern, educated and has good relationship in society. Code mixing with in the elements of Arabic
shows that the speaker is Islamic, obedient, or a devout person.
2.3.4 Causal Factors of Code Mixing
There are some factors that cause people to do code mixing. Breadsmore 1982:38 states that factors that cause people do code mixing are:
a. Bilingualism
It cannot be avoided that the ability to use to speak more than one language is a basic factor of code mixing. Most of the worlds population is bilingual or
multilingual.
b. Speaker and Partner Speaking
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