Establishment of Standards Measurement of Performance Correction of Deviations

ISBN : 978-602-17761-0-0 133 © 2013 Published by Center for Pulp and Paper through REPTech2012 Although the mathematical background for CS engineering was laid by Cauchy 1789-1857, it was not until about 75 years after his death that an actual CS theory began to evolve. Important early papers were “Regeneration Theory,” by Nyquist, 1932, and “Theory of Servomechanisms,” by Haze, 1934. World War II produced an ever-increasing need for working CS and thus did much to stimulate the development of a cohesive CS theory. Following the war a large number of linear CS theory books began to appear, although the theory was not yet complete. As recently as 1958 the author of a widely used control text stated in his preface that “CS are designed by trial and error.”. In the early 1960s a new CS design method referred to as modern CS theory appeared. This theory is highly mathematical in nature and almost completely oriented to the time domain. Elementary conventional linear system and subsystem modeling again using computer tools and approaches to loop design: a comparison of traditional and “intelligent” techniques; notions of self-tuning and adaptive controllers. .

5.5. Establishment of Standards

Because plans are the yardsticks against which managers devise controls, the irst step in the CS process logically would be to establish plans. However, since plans very in detail and complexity, and since managers cannot usually watch everything, special standards are established. Standards are, by deinition, simply criteria of performance. They are selected points in an entire planning program at which measure of performance are made so that managers can receive signals about how things are going and thus do not have to watch every step in the execution of plans. There are many kinds of standards. Among the best are veriiable goals or objectives, as suggested in the discussion of managing by objectives.

5.6. Measurement of Performance

Although such measurement is not always practicable, the measurement of performance against standards should ideally be done on a forward-looking basis so that deviations may be detected in advance of their occurrence and avoided by appropriate actions. The alert, forward-looking manager can sometimes predict probable departures form standards. In the absence of such ability, however, deviations should be disclosed as early as possible. If standards are appropriately drawn and if means are available for determining exactly what subordinates are doing, appraisal of actual or expected performance is fairly easy. But there are many activities for which it is dificult to develop accurate standards, and there are many activities that are hard to measure. It may be quite simple to establish labor-hour standards for the production of a mass-produced item, and it may be equally simple to measure performance against these standards, but if the item is customs-made, the appraisal of performance may be a formidable task because standards are dificult to set.

5.7. Correction of Deviations

Standards should relect the various positions in an organization structure. If performance is measured accordingly, it is easier to correct deviations. Managers know exactly where, in the assignment of individual or group duties, the corrective measure must be applied. Correction of deviations is the point at which control can be seen as a part of the whole system of management and can be related to the other managerial functions. Managers may correct deviations by redrawing their plans or by modifying their goals. This is an exercise of the principle of navigational change or they may correct deviations by exercising their organizing function through reassignment or clariication of duties. They may correct, also, by that ultimate re-stafing measure-iring or, again, they may correct through better leading-fuller explanation of the job or more effective leadership techniques.

VI. Summary

1. CS is to be found in almost every aspect of our daily environment. 2. The human body is, indeed, a very complex and highly perfected adaptive CS. Consider, for example, the human actions required to steer an automobile. 3. CS is highly multidisciplinary, with issues and features that are distinct from those of other branches of engineering. These issues are numerous and subtle, and often the most important aspects depend on the seemingly most insigniicant details. 4. Historically, the subject has advanced by employing abstraction to extract principles that are potentially applicable to a broad range of applications. Unfortunately, this abstraction often obscures the practical ramiications of important ideas. A more concrete approach to the subject an rejuvenate and reinvigorate education in this exciting and important area of technology. Wiener suggested that the most promising techniques for studying both systems are information theory and CS theory. 5. CS process as that found in physical, biological, and social systems. Likewise, in the human body, a number of CS control temperature, blood pressure, motor reactions, and other conditions. The human body is, indeed, a very complex and highly perfected adaptive CS. Consider, for example, the human actions required to steer an automobile. 134 © 2013 Published by Center for Pulp and Paper through REPTech2012 6. Let us next look at a CS problem from biology. Parts of the world are being overrun by an increasing population of rats. Here the system consists of the living population of rats and the environmental parameters that affect that population. The natural growth of the rat population is to be controlled to near some desired number, say, and zero. Here the job of the CS engineer is to build a better mouse- trap. 7. CS is to be found in industry, the term automation is very common. Modern industrial plants utilized robots for manufacturing temperature controls, pressure controls, speed controls, position controls, etc. The chemical process control ield is an area where automations have played an important role. 8. The philosophical position of the discipline of CS theory within the framework of metaphysics, CS theory is a teleological science. That is, the concepts of CS involve ideas such as purpose, goal-seeking and ideal or desirable norms. 9. Another philosophical aspect of CS theory is that it avoids the concepts of energy but, instead, deals with the phenomenon of information in physical systems. In this sense CS theory deals with the inverse problem of dynamical systems. 10. Because CS is so evident in both nature and humanity, it is impossible to determine when CS was irst intentionally used. Newton, Gould, and Kaiser’ cite the use of feedback in water clocks built by the Arabs as early as the beginning of the Christian era, but their next references is not dated until 1750. In the year 1788 by Watt’s invention of the ly-ball governor for regulation of the steam engine. 11. In the early 1960s a new CS design method referred to as modern CS theory appeared. This theory is highly mathematical in nature and almost completely oriented to the time domain. Elementary conventional linear system and subsystem modeling again using computer tools and approaches to loop design: a comparisonof traditional and “intelligent” techniques; notions of self-tuning and adaptive. Because plans are the yardsticks against which managers devise controls, the irst step in the CS process logically would be to establish plans. However, since plans very in detail and complexity, and since managers cannot usually watch everything, special standards are established. 12. Standards are, by deinition, simply criteria of performance. 13. Although such measurement is not always practicable, the measurement of performance against standards should ideally be done on a forward-looking basis so that deviations may be detected in advance of their occurrence and avoided by appropriate actions. 14. The alert, forward-looking manager can sometimes predict probable departures form standards. In the absence of such ability, however, deviations should be disclosed as early as possible. Standards should relect the various positions in an organization structure. 15. If performance is measured accordingly, it is easier to correct deviations. Managers now exactly where, in the assignment of individual or group duties, the corrective measure must be applied. Correction of deviations is the point at which control can be seen as a part of the whole system of management and can be related to the other managerial functions. Managers may correct deviations by redrawing their plans or by modifying their goals. 16. CS applications have social impacts not only in developed countries but also in developing countries. A new work force strategy without denying the existing of CS is established by retooling the work forces, thus the challenges of social impacts could be answers wisely and would be bright opportunities to improve human standards of living. References [1] Activities Report, Department of Automatic Control and Systems Engineering, The University of Shefield, UK, January 1999 to December 1999. [2] B.J. Habibie, B.J., Science, Technology and Nation Building, vol. I II, Technology Indonesia The Agency for The Assessment and Application of Technology, Jakarta, 1991. [3] Charles L. Philips, Royce D. Harbor. Feedback Control Systems. Prentice Hall International, Inc, 2000. [4] Dato’ Lee Yee Cheong, The President of World Federation of Engineering Organizations, Keynote Address : Current Activities of the World Federation of Engineering Organizations, CAFEO-21, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 22-23 October 2003. [5] Douglas Bullis. Write a Winning Business Plan. Time Books Int., Singapore, 1996. [6] G.F. Franklin, J.D. Powell, A. Emami-Naeni: Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems, 3rd edition, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading Massachusetts, 1994. [7] Heinz Weihrich, Harold Koontz., Management A Global Perspective. McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1994. [8] P. Choate, Retooling The American Work Force, Northeast-Midwest Institute, 1982. [9] R.C. Dorf, R.H. Bishop: Modern Control Systems, 9th edition, Prentice-Hall, Upper Sadle River, New Jersey, 2001. [10] R.J. Widodo, Automatic Control for Reducing Energy Consumption and Improving Energy Conservation, CAFEO-10, Manila Phillipines, 5-6 November 1992. ISBN : 978-602-17761-0-0 135 © 2013 Published by Center for Pulp and Paper through REPTech2012 [11] R.J. Widodo, R.J. Control Education at Bandung Insitute of Technology, CAFEO-11, Singapore, 18-19 November 1993. [12] R.J.Widodo, Development of Control Applications in Electrical Power Systems ,PSDC’95, Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung, 14-16 March 1995. [13] R.L. Phillips, R.D. Harbor R.J. Widodo, Feedback Control Systems, Third Edition, R.J. Widodo Alih Bahasa, Sistem Kontrol Lanjutan, Prenhallindo, Jakarta 1998. [14] Ricard A. D’aveni, Robert Gunther. Harper - Competition Managing the Dynamics of Strategic Maneuvering. Macmillan Inc, New York, 1994. [15] S. Zuboff, Computer-Mediated Work : A New World, The President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1982. [16] Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Coulomb . Joseph M. Williams, The Craft of Research, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago London, 1995. [17] www.---, European Control Conference – ECC 2001. [18] www.---, NSFCSS Workshop on New Direction in Control Engineering Education, Coordinated Science Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Campagne. October 2-3, 1998. k 1975. [19] www.---, The 4th Asian Control Conference – ASCC Singapore 2002. [20] www.iasted.com, IASTED International Conference on Control and Applications – CA, USA, 2002. 136 © 2013 Published by Center for Pulp and Paper through REPTech2012 Use of Alternative Fibrous Materials and Additives for Fiberboard Manufacture with Satisfactory Qualities, Sustaining Natural Resources, and Securing Environments Han Roliadi a , Dian Anggraini Indrawan b , Rossi Margareth Tampubolon c , Gustan Pari d a Center for Research and Development on Forestry Engineering and Forest Product Processing, Jl. Gunung Batu No. 5, Bogor-16610 West Java, Indonesia, hroliadiyahoo.com b Center for Research and Development on Forestry Engineering and Forest Product Processing, Jl. Gunung Batu No. 5, Bogor-16610 West Java, Indonesia, elisabeth_dianyahoo.com c Center for Research and Development on Forestry Engineering and Forest Product Processing, Jl. Gunung Batu No. 5, Bogor-16610 West Java, Indonesia, margarethrymail.comCenter d for Research and Development on Forestry Engineering and Forest Product Processing, Jl. Gunung Batu No. 5, Bogor-16610 West Java, Indonesia, gustanpyahoo.com ABSTRACT In relevant, density-based various iberboards, i.e. low-density insulation board, medium-density MDF, and high-density hardboard were experimentally manufactured using alternative ibrous materials, and incorporating alternative additives shrimp exoskeleton’s chitosan-glue and biomass-based activated charcoal. The ibrous-material pulping for all those iberboards employed an open hot-soda semi-chemical process. Physical- strength properties of insulation board from wood-logging waste pulp using chitosan glue were comparable to those using the conventional tapioca-glue, and mostly satisied the standard JIS. The addition of 5 activated- charcoal slightly decreased board strengths but improved its dimensional-stability. Scrutiny on MDF Physical- strength properties aided with discriminant function and canonic correlation analysis revealed that nypa-midrib ibers were more prospective for MDF than coconut-coir ibers, indicating that particular positive basic and pulping characteristics of nypa ibers dominated over their negative features. Nano-scale assessments strongly indicated that individually strength of nypa ibers was greater than those of coconut-coir. Activated-charcoal addition lowered the MDF formaldehyde-emission, but decreased its strengths. However, use of UF adhesive improved those strengths. In properties, MDFs from nypa ibers remarkably outperformed those from coconut- coir ibers in complying with the JIS. Yet, coconut-coir ibers could still be prospective for MDF by mixing them pulp form with nypa-iber pulp ww at 25+75 and 50+50 proportions. For hardboard from old rubber wood, its physical-strength properties could mostly meet the British Standard. The addition of elemental-sulphur to soda-cooking liquor signiicantly increased strength, and indicatively prompted the vulcanization reaction solidiication on the residual sticky latex exudates, thereby facilitating their manual-removal from the rubber- wood pulp ibers. This greatly overcame such sticky disturbance in rubber-wood processing, and reduced dark- colored latex spots on hardboard surface. Keywords: density-based various iberboards; depleted typical ibrous raw materials; renewable alternative ibrous materials; renewable alternative additives; shrimp-exosceleton chitosan-glue; biomass-based activated charcoal;

I. Introduction

Fiberboard belongs to the category of reconstituted products from ligno-cellulosic raw materials, i.e. wood or non-wood stuffs straw, bamboo, bagasse, coconut coir, empty oil palm bunches, other agricultural residues, etc. Fiberboard is different from particleboard in that it presents in the form of ibers instead of particles. An adhesive is not always needed for iber bonding, since the lignin in the original raw materials plays a role in iber-to-iber bonding. In addition, interweaving between ibers also contributes to such bond [1] [2] [3]. The stages in iberboard processing involve those of consecutively raw material preparation, pulping, pulp processinghandling, mat formation, and inishing. Pulping condition for iberboard was far milder than that for paperpaperboard, dissolving pulp, and other cellulose derivatives. The pulping usually employs semi-chemical process, TMP, or CTMP; and the prevalent chemicals used are sodium hydroxide NaOH, sodium sulphite Na 2 SO 3 , and ash soda Na 2 CO 3 .at relatively low concentration. Such chemicals functions only to soften lignin partial deligniication, since it is still used for iber-bonding during iberboard-mat forming. The pulp handling involves washing, screening, cleaning, and beating reining. The beatingreining action on the pulp for iberboard renders it reaching particular freeness degree, usually about 600-700 ml CSF 15-16 o SR [5]. Prior to mat forming, additives can be added to the water-based pulp suspension aimed to improve iberboard properties, such as enhancing strength and internal bond resin-based adhesive; water resistance and dimensional stability rosin size, wax, or asphalt emulsion; absorption of unwanted gasesodors coal- derived active adsorbent, durability preservatives; and ire resistance ire retardants [4], [6], [7], [8]. ISBN : 978-602-17761-0-0 137 © 2013 Published by Center for Pulp and Paper through REPTech2012 Fiberboards afford numerous uses such as heat- insulator, sound-dampening, furniture-products, electrical-appliances, interior-vehicles, and providing low-to-moderate structural strength. Based on its density, iberboard can be divided into three types, i.e. low density insulation board, 0.40 gcm 3 ; medium density MDF, 0.40-0.80 gcm 3 ; and high density hardboard, 0.80 gcm 3 . The greater the density, the heavier the iberboard can afford for structural uses [2]. The role of iberboard in Indonesia is relected from the increasing trends in its export as well as its import during the period 2004-2008, i.e. consecutively 53.4- 102.2 thousand tons and 180.8-234.8 thousand tons, further revealing that the amount of iberboard import exceeds its export. This indicates that Indonesia’s iberboard production still could not cope with its domestic consumption. In Indonesia, its tropical forest woods are still typically raw materials for iberboard manufacture, with their potency becoming depleted and scarce. This situation can trigger forest destruction and degradation, which nowadays proceed at staggering rate 2.5-3.0 million hayear [9], [10]. Consequently, use of alternative ibrous raw-materials deserves thorough consideration, with their potencies abundant, renewable, and still largely unutilized. Besides alternative materials, use of alternative additives should be considered with potency abundant as well in place or partial substitution of the conventional additives, which are usually derived from non-renewable sources, or their potency scare; and their use on environmental impacts still under question In relevant, experiment on laboratory-scale manufacture of iberboard was already conducted at the Center for Research and Development on Forest Forestry Engineering and Forest Products Processing CRDFEFPP, Bogor using alternative ibrous materials i.e. forest-wood logging wastes, nypa-midrib, coconut-coir, and old rubber-wood as well as alternative additives i.e. shrimp-exosceleton chitosan-glue and biomass-based activated charcoal. The experimented iberboard comprised consecutively insulation board, hardboard, and MDF; and the related results are recounted in the following.

II. Experiments on Fiberboard Manufacture 2.1. Insulation Board

Trial on insulation board manufacture proceeded using ibrous raw materials of using wood wastes from plantation-forest logging [11]. Such logging in Indonesia yields an enormous amount of wood wastes that ranges about 1.5-3.0 million m 3 year, which are usually left in the forest to decay. Use of those wastes for insulation board could expectedly deal with it, and concurrently their use for insulation board should lessen its dependency on the conventional ibrous materials natural-forest woods. The additives used were shrimp exoskeleton’s chitosan glue and activated charcoal. Chitosan is virtually natural polymer that consists of chitin, lipoprotein, and glycogen [12], [13]. Therefore, the chitosan as wastes from from shrimp exoskeleton can expectedly serve as effective adhesive as the conventional starch, commonly used in paper paperboard and iberboard. Meanwhile, activated charcoal is characteristically polar and affords greater surface areas, thereby rendering it effective in use as adsorbent for example of poisonous gases [14]. The wood wastes for the trial were those from the logging of Eucalyptus hybrid plantation forest. The pulping of those wastes employed hot semi- chemical process under atmospheric pressure, at NaOH concentration 8, ratio ww of wood-waste chips to cooking liquor 1:8 wv, at 100 o C for 3 hours. After the cooking, the already-softened chips were thoroughly separated from the residual cooking liquor, then sustained deiberation into pulp slurry in the beatingreining until reaching the pulp freeness at 600-700 ml CSF. The resulting pulp was examined of the yield and chemical alkali consumption, and ready for mat forming. In average the pulp yield reached 81.8, still in the range commonly obtained in semi- chemical pulping process 65-85. Meanwhile, alkali consumption averaged 7.12, indicating of the initial alkaliNaOH concentration 8, as much as 89 was consumed during the chip cooking. Further, prior to mat insulation board forming that measured 30cm x 30cm x 1cm, activated charcoal was added to the pulp slurry at the mixture proportion ww: 0+100, 2.5+97.5, 5+95, 7.5+92.5, and 10+90. Alum as retention agent was also incorporated 2.5. To enhance iber-to-iber bonding, chitosan adhesive was incorporated 3 in each of the mixture proportions. As the control comparison, the conventional tapioca starch was also separately used in each proportion also 3. Mat forming employed the wet process with targeted density 0.350 gcm 3 , followed with cold pressing and heat treatment at 140 o C for 2 hours. The resulting insulation-board mat was then conditioned and examined of its physical and strength properties Table 1. The use of activated charcoal tended to decrease density and strength MOR of insulation board, and to increase moisture content, but improving dimensional stability lower thickness swelling and linear expansion Table 1. This is because activated charcoal as tiny particles could interfere with iber- to-iber bonding, rendering it less dense compact in the board structure. However, being tiny particles, such charcoal particles afforded greater surface area, thereby enhancing more surface contact with water molecules. Such phenomena possibly render more water molecules being adsorbed by the charcoal moisture content of the board increased, thereby 138 © 2013 Published by Center for Pulp and Paper through REPTech2012 Table 1. Physical and Strength Properties of Insulation Board Properties Shrimp exoskeleton’s chitosan adhesive Conventional tapioca adhesive Standard JIS I II I II Density, gcm 3 0.364 0.320-0.354 0.360 0.354-0.367 0.350 Moisture content, 10.960 7.895-11.540 5.880 6.250-13.640 5-13 MOR, kgcm 2 111.84 76.230-93.275 98.730 74.125-116.210 20.4 Thickness swelling, 19.030 17.292-28.103 26.431 17.437-26.688 ≤ 10 Linear expansion, 1.103 0.684-1.418 1.544 0.698-1.464 ≤ 0.50 Remarks: I = Without at 0 Activated Charcoal; II = With Activated Charcoal 2.5-10.0; JIS = Japan Industrial Standard [19] Source: [11] lessening and hindering the amount of water to enter into the iber structure enhancing dimensional stability. Mostly, in physical and strength properties insulation board with tapioca adhesive performed better than that with chitosan glue, in satisfying the JIS requirement. However, the use of chitosan glue was still prospective for the board in doing so by employing the mixture of wood-waste pulp and activated charcoal at consecutively 100+0 and 97.5+2.5 proportions.

2.2. Hardboard