Morphological Processes In Medan Mandarin Chinese(Structuralist Approach)

MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN MEDAN

MANDARIN CHINESE

(STRUCTURALIST APPROACH)

THESIS

BY

NURJAFA

107009026/LNG

THE UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

MEDAN

2012

MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN MEDAN

MANDARIN CHINESE

(STRUCTURALIST APPROACH)

A THESIS

Submitted to the University of Sumatera Utara School of

Postgraduate Studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Master of Linguistics

By

NURJAFA

107009026/LNG

THE UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

MEDAN

2012

Thesis Title : MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN MEDAN MANDARIN CHINESE (STRUCTURALIST APPROACH) Student’s name : Nurjafa

Registered Number : 107009026 Study programme : Linguistics

Approved by

The Commission of Supervisors,

(Prof. Dr. Robert Sibarani, M.S) (Dr. Syahron Lubis, M.A Supervisor Co-supervisor

)

The Head of Department, Director,

(Prof. T. Silvana Sinar, M.A., Ph.D) (Prof. Dr. Ir. A. Rahim Matondang, MSIE)

Has been examined on the 29th of August 2012

COMMITTEE OF THE THESIS EXAMINERS

CHAIRPERSON : Prof. Dr. Robert Sibarani, M.S MEMBERS : 1. Dr. Syahron Lubis, M.A

2. Prof. Amrin Saragih, M.A., Ph.D 3. Dr. Khairina Nasution, M.S

ABSTRAK

Judul dari penelitian ini adalah Proses Morfologi pada bahasa Mandarin Medan (Pendekatan Strukturalis). Salah satu sifat yang unik dari bahasa Mandarin di Medan

dalam aturan pembentukan kata. Penelitian ini bermaksud untuk menggambarkan proses pemberian akhiran, kata majemuk, dan reduplikasi pada bahasa Mandarin Medan. Dalam melakukan penelitian ini, metode kwalitatif diterapkan. Teknik dari pengumpulan data yaitu dengan merekam pembicaraan penutur asli bahasa Mandarin Medan dalam menceritakan cerita dan menjawab pertanyaan yang berhubungan dengan proses morfologi dalam bahasa tersebut. Sumber data penelitian ini yaitu dengan melakukan tindakan wawancara kepada penutur asli bahasa Mandarin Medan. Lokasi dari penelitian ini yaitu di sekolah tinggi ASM Cendana yang beralamat di Pusat Niaga Asia Mega Mas blok L No. 6,7,8 dan blok N No. 26,27, 28 Medan. Berdasarkan dari analisis penelitian ini, akhiran ‘-men 们 ’ dapat ditambahkan pada kata ganti orang untuk menyatakan bentuk jamaknya. Beberapa dari proses akhiran morfologi pada bahasa Mandarin Medan adalah: -zi子,- er儿, -tou头, -le了, -zhe着, dan -guo过 terdiri dari dari kata benda dan kata kerja. Kata majemuk dalam bahasa Mandarin Medan terdiri dari kata benda ditambahkan dengan kata benda, namun hasilnya menjadi kata sifat dan banyak kata kerja dan kata sifat yang dapat direduplikasi juga. Akhirnya, proses morfologi bahasa Mandarin Medan hanya mengikuti dua prinsip dari Nida, yaitu: prinsip ke-1 dan prinsip ke-5.

Kata kunci: morfologi, proses pemberian akhiran, kata majemuk, reduplikasi, dan bahasa Mandarin Medan

ABSTRACT

The title of this research is Morphological Processes in Medan Mandarin Chinese (Structuralist Approach). One of the unique traits in Medan Mandarin Chinese is in

its word-formation rules. This research intends to depict the suffixation, compounding, and reduplication in Medan Mandarin Chinese. The objectives of this study are to describe how words are formed by means of suffixation, compounding, and reduplication in Medan Mandarin Chinese. In doing this research, the qualitative method is applied. The technique of gathering the data is by recording the native speakers’ of Medan Mandarin Chinese in telling stories and answering the questions related to the morphological processes in the language. The source of the data is by making some interviews of the native speakers of Medan Mandarin Chinese. The location of the research is in ASM Cendana college located at Pusat Niaga Asia Mega Mas blok L No. 6,7, 8 and blok N No. 26, 27, 28 Medan.

Based on the analysis, the suffix ‘-men们’ can be added to a personal pronoun to express the plural forms. Some of the morphological processes of suffixation in Medan Mandarin Chinese are : -zi子,- er儿, -tou头, -le了, -zhe着, and -guo过

are composed of nouns and verbs. The compound word in Medan Mandarin can be composed of a noun and a noun, yet the result will be in an adjective and there are many verbs and adjectives can be reduplicated as well. At length, the morphological processes in Medan Mandarin Chinese only follows two principles of Nida’s, those are: principle 1 and principle 5.

Key words: morphology, suffixation, compounding, reduplication, and Medan Mandarin Chinese

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is a pleasure to express my heartfelt gratitude to the many people who made this thesis possible.

This thesis would not have been possible without the help, support, and patience of my principal supervisor, Professor Dr. Robert Sibarani, M.S, who provided encouraging and constructive feedback. It is no easy task, reviewing a thesis, and I am grateful for his thoughtful and detailed comments.

The good advice, support, and friendship of my second supervisor, Dr. Syahron Lubis, M.A., has been invaluable on both an academic and a personal level, for which I am extremely grateful.

My sincere gratitude goes out to Prof. Amrin Saragih, M.A., Ph.D and Dr. Khairina Nasution M.S as the board of examiners for their valuable critics, inputs, and suggestions on improving the perfection of my thesis.

A very special thanks goes out to Prof. T. Silvana, M.A., Ph.D as the head of postgraduate study of the department of linguistics at the university of North Sumatra and Dr. Nurlela, M. Hum as the secretary of the department of linguistics at the university of North Sumatra and other lecturers for their moral support.

My hearty gratitude to my beloved mother and sister, Tio Tigiok 陈玉娣 and Farrah Liau 廖美娟, that always support me very much indeed in my study at all times. They have given me their unequivocal support throughout, as always, for which my mere expression of thanks likewise does not suffice.

Above all, I do always look back on giving my very special thank you to my beloved wife, Arni Octavia Liaufaldi, BBA 洪 俐 名, who has given me some valuable idea in doing this thesis.

This thesis is dedicated also to my late father, Liau Shui Khun 廖水坤, and my two sweet sugary lovely little diamond daughters, Fiorelli Liaufaldi 廖慧儿 and Tiffany Liaufaldi 廖慧妮. They are my true inspiration in my daily steps.

Medan, 1st

The writer, October 2012

Nurjafa 廖健华 107009026/LNG

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRAK ……….... i

ABSTRACT ……….. ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………. iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... v

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES... xii

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Background of the Study ... 1

1.2 The Problems of the Study ... 5

1.3 The Objectives of the Study... 5

1.4 The Scope of the Study ... 6

1.5 The Significance of the Study ... 6

CHAPTER II : THEORETICAL REVIEW 2.1 The Definition of Morphology ...…. 7

2.3 Word-Classes: A Structuralist Approach … 13

2.4 The Constituent of Word-Formation …….... 17

2.5 Word Formation Processes ... 19

2.5.1 Suffixation ……….. 20

2.5.2 Conversion ……... 20

2.5.3 Back-Formation ... 22

2.5.4 Abbreviations ... 24

2.5.5 Clippings ... 25

2.5.6 Acronyms ... 27

2.5.7 Blends ... 29

2.6 Compounds ………... 32

2.6.1 Noun Compounds ………... 33

2.6.1.1 Type ‘Subject and Verb’ ……... 33

2.6.1.2 Type ‘Verb and Object’………. 34

2.6.1.3 Type ‘Verb and Adverbial’…… 36 2.6.1.4 Verbless Compounds:

Type ‘Subject and Object’ …… 40

2.6.1.5 Type ‘Subject and Complement’ 41

2.6.1.6 Combining-Form Compounds.. 43

2.6.1.7 ‘Bahuvrihi Compounds’ …….. 44

2.6.2 Adjective Compounds ………. 45

2.6.2.1 Type ‘Verb and Object’ …... 45

2.6.2.2 Type ‘Verb and Adverbial’ …. 46

2.6.2.3 Type ‘Verbless’ ……….. 47

2.7 Reduplicatives ... 49

2.8 The Identification of Morphemes (Stucturalist Approach) ……….. 50

2.8.1 Principle 1 ... 50

2.8.2 Principle 2 ... 50

2.8.3 Principle 3 ... 50

2.8.4 Principle 4 ... 51

2.8.5 Principle 5 ... 52

2.9 Previous Related Research ……….. 53

CHAPTER III : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design ... 55

3.2 The Source of the Data ... 57

3.3 The Procedure of Analysing the Data ... 59

CHAPTER IV : THE DATA AND DATA ANALYSIS 4.1 The Identification of Morphemes (Structuralist Approach) ……….. 61

4.1.1 Principle 1 ……….. 61

4.1.1.1 Suffix –men 们 ……….. 61

4.1.2 Principle 2 ……….. 63

4.1.3 Principle 3 ………. 63

4.1.4 Principle 4 ………. 64

4.1.5 Principle 5 ………. 64

4.1.6 Principle 6 ………. 66

4.2.1 Suffix –zi ‘子’ ……… 66

4.2.2 Suffix –er (-r) ‘儿’………. 68

4.2.3 Suffix -tou ‘头’………. 69

4.3 Suffix –le ‘了’, -zhe ‘ 着’, -guo ’过’…………. 70

4.3.1 Suffix -le………... 70

4.3.2 Suffix –le is used to show certainty ……. 71

4.3.3 Suffix ‘-zhe’……….………. 72

4.3.4 Suffix ‘-guo’……….………. 72

4.4 Word Formation Methods for Compounding….. 73

4.4.1联合 liánhé ‘Joint compound words’ …… 73

4.4.1.1 Words Composed of the Components

With the Same of Similar Meanings. 74

4.4.1.2 Words Composed of the Components

of the Opposite Meanings:……….. 75

With the Related Meanings:………. 76

4.4.2偏正 piānzhèng ‘Modifier-Modified Compound Words’ ………..……… 77

4.4.3补充 bǔchōng ‘verb-complement compound words’… ……….. 78

4.4.4 verb + noun verb ………... 78

4.4.5主谓 zhǔwèi ‘Subject-predicate compound words’ ………. 79

4.4.6 adjective + noun noun ………. 80

4.4.7 noun + noun adjective ………….. 80

4.4.8 verb + noun adjective ………... 81

4.5 Reduplication ……… 81

4.5.1 Reduplication of Adjective ……….. 82

4.5.2 Reduplication of the Verb ………... 83

4.5.2.1 Verb + Verb Interjection 84

Monosyllabic Verbs ………... 84

4.5.2.3 The Reduplicated Verb in the

Sentence with ‘把_(bă)’ ..….. 85

CHAPTER V : CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

5.1 Conclusions ………. 86

5.2 Suggestions ………... 93

REFERENCES APPENDIX

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLE

FIGURE 2.1 The Morphological Structure of Tranguillizer ... 13

FIGURE 2.2 Classification of English Morphemes ... 16

ABSTRAK

Judul dari penelitian ini adalah Proses Morfologi pada bahasa Mandarin Medan (Pendekatan Strukturalis). Salah satu sifat yang unik dari bahasa Mandarin di Medan

dalam aturan pembentukan kata. Penelitian ini bermaksud untuk menggambarkan proses pemberian akhiran, kata majemuk, dan reduplikasi pada bahasa Mandarin Medan. Dalam melakukan penelitian ini, metode kwalitatif diterapkan. Teknik dari pengumpulan data yaitu dengan merekam pembicaraan penutur asli bahasa Mandarin Medan dalam menceritakan cerita dan menjawab pertanyaan yang berhubungan dengan proses morfologi dalam bahasa tersebut. Sumber data penelitian ini yaitu dengan melakukan tindakan wawancara kepada penutur asli bahasa Mandarin Medan. Lokasi dari penelitian ini yaitu di sekolah tinggi ASM Cendana yang beralamat di Pusat Niaga Asia Mega Mas blok L No. 6,7,8 dan blok N No. 26,27, 28 Medan. Berdasarkan dari analisis penelitian ini, akhiran ‘-men 们 ’ dapat ditambahkan pada kata ganti orang untuk menyatakan bentuk jamaknya. Beberapa dari proses akhiran morfologi pada bahasa Mandarin Medan adalah: -zi子,- er儿, -tou头, -le了, -zhe着, dan -guo过 terdiri dari dari kata benda dan kata kerja. Kata majemuk dalam bahasa Mandarin Medan terdiri dari kata benda ditambahkan dengan kata benda, namun hasilnya menjadi kata sifat dan banyak kata kerja dan kata sifat yang dapat direduplikasi juga. Akhirnya, proses morfologi bahasa Mandarin Medan hanya mengikuti dua prinsip dari Nida, yaitu: prinsip ke-1 dan prinsip ke-5.

Kata kunci: morfologi, proses pemberian akhiran, kata majemuk, reduplikasi, dan bahasa Mandarin Medan

ABSTRACT

The title of this research is Morphological Processes in Medan Mandarin Chinese (Structuralist Approach). One of the unique traits in Medan Mandarin Chinese is in

its word-formation rules. This research intends to depict the suffixation, compounding, and reduplication in Medan Mandarin Chinese. The objectives of this study are to describe how words are formed by means of suffixation, compounding, and reduplication in Medan Mandarin Chinese. In doing this research, the qualitative method is applied. The technique of gathering the data is by recording the native speakers’ of Medan Mandarin Chinese in telling stories and answering the questions related to the morphological processes in the language. The source of the data is by making some interviews of the native speakers of Medan Mandarin Chinese. The location of the research is in ASM Cendana college located at Pusat Niaga Asia Mega Mas blok L No. 6,7, 8 and blok N No. 26, 27, 28 Medan.

Based on the analysis, the suffix ‘-men们’ can be added to a personal pronoun to express the plural forms. Some of the morphological processes of suffixation in Medan Mandarin Chinese are : -zi子,- er儿, -tou头, -le了, -zhe着, and -guo过

are composed of nouns and verbs. The compound word in Medan Mandarin can be composed of a noun and a noun, yet the result will be in an adjective and there are many verbs and adjectives can be reduplicated as well. At length, the morphological processes in Medan Mandarin Chinese only follows two principles of Nida’s, those are: principle 1 and principle 5.

Key words: morphology, suffixation, compounding, reduplication, and Medan Mandarin Chinese

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Background of the Study

The Chinese Language (汉语/ 华语) is a member of Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Chinese is a tonal language, meaning that pitch is used to distinguish words. About one-fifth of the world speaks some form of Chinese as its native language, making it the most common language in the world. The Chinese language (spoken in its Standard Chinese is called Mandarin Chinese form) is the official language of the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan)，

one of four official languages of Singapore, and one of six official languages of the United Nations.

Scholars think Chinese writing originated almost four thousand years ago and that spoken language goes back to remote antiquity, making it one of the world’s oldest languages. The language is spoken in many dialects within China, as well as in many overseas Chinese communities, especially in Southeast Asia, Europe, and the Americas. And there are more than a billion native speakers of Chinese worldwide.

Chinese is considered by many to be a language that is difficult to learn, mainly because its grammar operates along very different principles compared to European languages (for example, we will see no tenses, plurals, or subject-verb agreement, we will see counter words, reduplication rules, and verb completion/direction suffixes). In addition, Chinese is one of the few languages in the world that does not use an alphabet or a syllabary; instead, thousands of characters are used, each representing a word or part of a word.

The government of China has developed a system of writing Chinese in the Roman alphabet, known as Hanyu Pinyin (汉 语 拼 音), ‘spelling according to

sounds’. Hanyu Pinyin is used to write out Chinese names in English (for example,

‘Beijing’, ‘Shanghai’, etc) and helps learners of Chinese with their pronunciation.

Hanyu, literally ‘language of the Han’, refers to the standard Chinese language, and

is spoken by the Han, Hui, Manchu, and other ethnic groups that constitute 94% of

the population of China. There are fifty-six recognized ethnic groups in China, using as many as eighty different languages.

North Sumatra (Indonesian: Sumatera Utara) is a province of Indonesia on

Sumatra Island. Its capital is Medan, on the northeast coast. It is the most populous Indonesian province outside of Java. It is slightly larger than Sri Lanka in area. A highly visible component of Medan's population is the large number of Chinese, who are very active in the business sector, and unlike the ethnic Chinese in many other

Speaking of Mandarin, people in Medan speak this language as well. However, there are some similarities and dissimilarities in certain linguistic cases, especially in the morphological case of the language.

One of the unique traits in Medan Mandarin Chinese is the compounding with the word-formation rules. The word-formation rules are definitely different from the standard Mandarin in China, for example: adjective + noun becomes noun; lěng冷 ‘cold’ + qì气‘gas’ lěngqì 气冷 ‘air-conditioning’ or verb + noun becomes adjective; chī 吃 ‘to eat’ + cù 醋 ‘vinegar’ chīcù 吃醋 ‘jealous’ are well-accepted for Medan Mandarin speakers instead of using noun + verb becomes noun in kōng 空 ‘air’ + tiáo 调 ‘to set’ kōng tiáo 空调 ‘air-conditioning’ or adjective + adjective becomes adjective in ‘dù 妒 ‘jealous’ + jí 急 ‘jealous’ dùjí 妒急 ‘jealous’ in the Standard Mandarin in China.

The similar morphological case for reduplication takes place as well to Medanese Mandarin speakers. For instance, the reduplication zǒu 走 ‘to walk’ + zǒu走 ‘to walk’ zǒuzǒu 走走 ‘to take a stroll’ is a well-known reduplication used among Medan Mandarin Chinese speakers instead of the word guàngguàng 桄 桄 ‘to take a stroll’ in the standard Mandarin in China.

In addition to the loanwords, 巴刹bāshā ‘market and ’沙腊shālà ‘snakeskin fruit’ (they come from the words ‘pasar’ and ‘salak’ in Bahasa Indonesia). The

word 巴 刹 _{bāshā ‘market’ and} 沙 腊 _shālà ‘snakeskin fruit’ are absolutely unacceptable and understandable in the standard Mandarin or PǔtōngHuà in China as

the people in China do comprehend the word 市场 shìchǎng ‘market’ and shépíguǒ

蛇皮果 instead of巴刹 _{bāshā and}沙腊 _shālà . 锁匙 suǒchí ‘key’, 拜一 bàiyī for ‘Monday’, 拜二 bài èr for ‘Tuesday’, 拜三 bàisān for ‘Wednesday’, 拜四 bàisì for ‘Thursday’, 拜五 bàiwǔ for ‘Friday’, 拜六 bàiliù for ‘Saturday’, lǐbài 礼拜 for ‘Sunday’,鸡婆 _{jīpó for ‘garrulous’,} 抢光 _{qiăngguāng for ‘wiseacre’, ( they come}

from Hokkien).

This thesis does not talk over the comparative study between the Standard Mandarin in China with Medan Mandarin Chinese, yet this thesis will reveal to other readers that there are some similarities and dissimilarities between them in certain linguistic cases.

Based on the above-mentioned statements, Mandarin spoken in Medan is very worth investigating for this exclusive and unique phenomena can enrich the output of word-formation rules.

In order to elaborate the morphological processes in Medan Mandarin Chinese for readers in details, HanyuPinyin (汉语拼音) and simplified Chinese Characters are used in this thesis as well.

As at the first paragraph above has been mentioned that the Chinese language is a tonal language, thus in the structuralist approach, expecially in the Nida’s principles, the identification of morphemes will be applied and described in a clear way in terms of common semantic distinctiveness and homophonous forms in this thesis.

Based on the above-mentioned statements, the title of ‘Morphological Processes in Medan Mandarin Chinese (Structuralist Approach)’ is picked out.

1.2 The Problems of the Study

Consequently, problems are formulated as the following:

1. How are the words formed by suffixation in Medan Mandarin Chinese? 2. How are the words formed by compounding in Medan Mandarin Chinese? 3. How are the words formed by reduplication in Medan Mandarin Chinese?

At length, the problems of the study will be brushed-up in details by providing

an analysis of morphological processes in Medan Mandarin Chinese.

1.3 The Objectives of the Study

1. to describe how words are formed by means of suffixation in Medan Mandarin Chinese,

2. To describe how compound words are formed in Medan Mandarin Chinese and

3. to describe how reduplication are formed in Medan Mandarin Chinese.

1.4 The Scope of the Study

Like other languages, Medan Mandarin Chinese has a fairly great number of linguistic cases. Suffixation, compounding, and reduplication will be only focused in this study. They are all worth discussing and each of them should prove stimulating especially for those interested in the language.

In addition, should there be any special morphological processes in Medan Mandarin Chinese, this kind of problem will certainly be paid close attention.

1.5 The Significance of the Study

Findings of the study are expected to be relevant for theoretical and practical applications.

a. help people who have a desire to study and research this Medan Mandarin Chinese deeply, especially in the word-formation and

b. provide materials for drawing up the morphological rules of Medan Mandarin Chinese.

2. Theoretically the findings can be useful to

a. give contribution to the theory of morphology and

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

2.1 The Definition of Morphology

The term morphology comes from the Ancient Greek word morphe which

means ‘form’ and logos which means ‘science’. Since the dominant term of form in

linguistics referred to the form of word, morphology is therefore the science of form of words.

Morphology is the branch of linguistics studying how words are structured and how they are put together from smaller parts. For example, the English word

unfriendly is formed from friend, the adjective-forming suffix-ly and the negative

prefix un- (Sibarani, 2006:1).

Morphology is the study of morphemes and their arrangements in forming words (Nida, 1967:1). It would be quite wrong to assume, however, that morphology and syntax constitute air-tight compartments in the structure of any language. This is by no means true. In some languages there is constant overlapping of structure, and in a few instances it seems almost impossible to draw a line between word structure and phrase structure.

Morphology refers is the words of language (Fronklim, Rodman, Hyams, 2011:36). Words are an important part of linguistic knowledge and constitute a component of out mental grammars, but one can learn thousands words in a language and still not know the language. Anyone who tried to communicate in a foreign country by merely using a dictionary knows this is true. On the other hand, without words we would be unable to convey our thoughts through language or understand the thoughts of others.

Morphology is the study of how words are structured and how they are put together from smaller parts (Language Files, 1988:117). Despite the popular notion that the word is the smallest meaningful unit, the smallest unit with meaning is actually the morpheme. A word may be made up of several morphemes.

Morphology is the study of formal relationships between words (Singh, Starosta 2003:18). Morphology is at the conceptual centre of linguistics. This is not because it is the dominant subdiscipline, but because morphology is the study of word structure, and words are at the interface between phonology, syntax and semantics. Words have phonological properties, they articulate together to form phrases and sentences, their form often reflects their syntactic function, and theirparts are often composed of meaningful smaller pieces.

It is true that there are some words whose sound seems to reflect their meaning fairy directly. These include so-called onomatopoeic words, such as words for animal cries: bow-wow, miaow, cheep, cock-a-doodle-doo ( Carstairs 2002:6-7 ).

But even here convention plays a large part. Onomatopoeic words are not the same in all languages, for example, a cock-crow in German is kikeriki, and dog’s bark in

French is ouah ouah (pronounced roughly ‘wah wah).

Someone who doesn’t know English would not know where one word begins or ends in an utterance like Thecatsatonthemat. We separate written words by

spaces, but in the spoken language there are no pauses between most words. Without the knowledge of the language, one can’t tell how many words are there in an utterance. Knowing a word means knowing that a particular sequence of sounds is associated with a particular meaning. A speaker of English has no difficulty in segmenting the stream of sounds into six individual words—the, cat, sat, on, the, mat—because each of these words is listed in his or her mental dictionary, lexicon

(the Greek word for dictionary), that is part of a speaker’s linguistic knowledge. Similarly, a speaker knows that uncharacteristically, which has more letters than

Thecatsatonthemat, is nevertherles a single word.

Although some of these may sound strange concept, they are perfectly acceptable forms. The idea-ideas case is the most straightforward. The distinction

between these two words is that while the first refers to a single thing, the second refers to more than one of them (Newson et.al, 2006: 7).

In general the word is the smallest unit that one thinks of as being basic to saying anything. It is the smallest unit of sentence composition and the smallestunit

that we are aware of when we consciously try to create sentences (Stockwell, 2001:56).

2.2 Types of Morphemes

The term morpheme is used to refer to the smallest unit that has meaning or

serves a grammatical function in a language. Morphemes are the atoms with which words are built ( Katamba, 1994:20). A morpheme can be made up of one phoneme, e.g. the plural /z/, or more than one phoneme as in /dɒg/. We can equate morphemes with what we call ‘words’, since cats is one word but two morphemes. Nor can we

equate morphemes with syllables, since elephant has three syllables but is one morpheme.

Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of words, e.g. re-, de-, un-, -ish, -ly, - ceive, - mand, tie, boy, and like in the

combinations receive, demand, untie, boyish, likely (Nida, 1967:1). The morpheme

arrangements which are treated under the morphology of a language include all combinations that form words or parts of words. Combinations of words into phrases and sentences are treated under the syntax.

A morpheme is the minimal linguistic unit which has a meaning or grammatical function. Although many people think of words as the basic meaningful

elements of a language, many words can be broken down into still smaller units, called morphemes (Language Files, 1988:119).

There are two classes of morphemes (Lim, 1980:38). A free morpheme

(sometimes called a ‘stem’ or ‘base’) is one which can meaning-fully occur alone, e.g. book, pencil, elephant, love, give, happy, very. There are also morphemes that

must always occur with a base, e.g. the ‘plural’ morpheme in books cannot occur

alone as s, except in a sentence like The ‘s’ in ‘books’ expresses plurality. Such

morphemes are called bound morphemes. Other examples of bound morphemes are

the ‘present tense’ morpheme in walk(s), run(s), the ‘negative’ morpheme in (un) happy, (in) attentive and the ‘quality’ morpheme in happi(ness), sinceri(ty).

Bound morphemes may be classified as affixes, which are subdivided into prefixes, suffixes and infixes, according to the way they combine with the base or stem. Prefixes occur before the base, e.g. (un)tidy, (pre)school, (dis)like. Suffixes

occur after the base, e.g. kind(ness), angri(ly), judge(ment), teach(er). Infixes occur

in the middle of the base. English has no infixes.

Bound morphemes or affixes may also be classified as derivational or inflectional according to the effect they produce on the base. Dericational affixes are bound morphemes which generally combinde with the base to change its ‘parts of speech’ class. For example, teach, build and sweep are verbs, but if we add the

affix ly to the adjectives happy, loud, smooth, we get we get the adverbs happily, loudly, smoothly. Another example of derivational affix en which can change nouns

into verbs, e.g. danger, slave, throne become endanger, enslave, enthrone. However,

the part of speech is sometimes not changed by a derivational affix, e.g. like and dislike are both verbs; true and untrue are both adjectives.

Inflectional affixes are bound morphemes which carry grammatical meanings like ‘plural’, ‘past tense’ or ‘possessive’. In English the number of inflectional morphemes is small but they combine with many bases. They do not change the part of speech of the base to which they are added. For example, if we add the ‘plural’ morpheme to the nouns bag, tin, church they remain nouns: bags, tins, churches; if

we add the ‘past tense’ morpheme to the verbs walk, drown, risen, they are still

verbs: walked, drowned, rinsed.

Both derivational and inflectional affixes may be used to define word classes (or parts of speech). For example, bases that can combin with er and est (to express

comparison) or with ness are adjectives, e.g. tall, kind, happy and smooth; and bases

that can dance. English derivational affixes may be either prefixes (dislike, behead, unknown) or suffixes (judgement, sweetly, creator). English inflectional affixes, on

the other hand, tend to be suffixes, e.g. Tom’s, walked, glasses, talking.

Thus, the language user is able to coin new polymorphemic words (words consisting of more than one morpheme) through the concatenation of morphemes,

and of morphemes, and of morphemes with words that are themselves polymorphemic. An example of the latter is the formation of the verb tranquillize,

itself derived from tranquil through the addition of –ize. The formation of tranquillizer is not a matter of concatenating three morphemes.. instead, it is a

two-steps operation. First, the bound morpheme –ize has been added to the simplex

adjective tranquil, resulting in the verb tranquillize. Subsequently, the bound

morpheme –er has been added to this verb. The morphological structure of this word is therefore a layered one, and can be represented in the form of a string with labelled bracketing, or a tree (Figure 2.1). In short, morphology might be seen as morpheme sysntas, as the set of principles that tell you how to combine free and bound morphemes into well-formed words.

[[[tranquill]A [ize]Vaff ] [er]Naff]N

N

N

A Vaff Naff

tranquill ize er

2.3 Word-Classes: A Structuralist Approach

Language make an important distinction between two kinds of words— content words and functions words. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are the content words (Fronklim, Rodman, Hyams, 2011:39). These words denote concepts such as objects, actions, attributes, and ideas that we can think about like children, anarchism, soar, and purple. Content words are sometimes called the open class words because we can and regularly do add new words to these classes, such as

Bollywood, blog, dis, and 24/7, pronounced “twenty-four seven.”

Other classes of words do not have clear lexical meanings or obvious concepts associated with them, including conjunction, such as and, or, and but;

prepositions such as in and of; the articles the and a/an, and pronouns such as it.

These kinds of words are called function words because they specify grammatical relations and have little or no semantic content. For example, the articles indicate whether a noun is definite or indefinite—the boy or a boy. The prepositon of

indicates possession, as in ‘the book of yours,’ but this word indicates many other

kinds of relations too.

Function words are sometimes called closed class words. It is difficult to think of any conjunctions prepositions, or pronouns that have recently entered the language. The small set of personal pronouns such as I, me, mine, he, she, and so on are part of this class. With the growth of the feminist movement, some proposals

have been made for adding a genderless singular pronoun. If such a pronoun existed, it might have prevented the department head in a large university from making the incongruous statement: “We will hire the best person for the job regardless of his sex.” Various proposals such as ‘e’ have been put forward, but none are likely to gain acceptance because the closed classes are unreceptive to new membership. Rather, speakers prefer to recruit existing pronouns such as they and their for this

job, as in “We will hire the best person for the job regardless of their sex.”

The difference between content and function words is illustrated by the following test that has circulated over the Internet:

Count the number of F’s in the following text without reading further:

FINISHED FILES ARE THE

RESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED WITH

THE EXPERIENCE OF YEARS.

Most people come up with three, which is wrong. If you came up with fewer that six, count again, and this time, pay attention to the function word of.

This little test illustrates that the brain treats content and function words (like

of) differently. A great deal of psychological and neurological evidence supports this

have greater difficulty in using, understanding, or reading function words like in or which, but can read the lexical content words inn and witch.

In the early stages for development, children often omit function words from their speech, as in for example, ‘doggie barking’.

The linguistic evidence suggests that content words and function words play different roles in language. Content words bear the brunt of the meaning, whereas function words connect the content words to the larger grammatical context. So, modern linguistics classify five word-classes: Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and function words. The classification of English morphemes in modern linguistics can be seen as follows:

(ENGLISH) MORPHEMES

BOUND FREE

AFFIX ROOT OPEN CLASS CLOSED CLASS (CONTENT OR (FUNCTION OR LEXICAL) GRAMMATICAL) WORDS WORDS

nouns (girl) conjunctions (and)

adjectives (pretty) prepositions (in)

verbs (love) articles (the)

adverbs (away) pronouns (she)

auxiliary verbs (is)

DERIVATIONAL INFLECTIONAL

PREFIX SUFFIX SUFFIX

pre- -ly -ing –er –s un- -ist -s –est –‘s con- -ment -ed

2.4 The Constituent of Word-Formation

To the native speaker, many words have an obvious internal structure.with

blackbird and monkey-like, we can see that each word comprises parts that occur

elsewhere in the language with the same meaning (blakboard and ladylike, for

example) (Quirk et.al., 1992: 1518). We shall refer to such items as COMPLEX words, in contrast to those words-long or short-which to the native speaker have to be learnt as arbitrarily contrived units, with no recognizable parts: cat or rhinoceros.

Superficially, a complex word like depolarization looks like a simple linear

string of items:

de + pol(e) + ar + iz(e) + aion

consisting of the WORD pole with AFFIXES which may precede (PREFIXES) or

follow (SUFFIXES). But some complex words are not analysable into words plus affixes:

jealous = jeal- + -ous

pious = pi- +-ous

(contrast desirous = desire + -ous)

To capature what is common to pole, desire, jeal- and pi-, therfore, we obviously

stems desire and jeal- combine with the affix –ous to yield the adjectives. But a

further distinction is necessary, as this is inadequate when we want to describe depolarization, since if we said that the affixes de-,-ar-, -ie, and –ation are combined

with the stem, this might imply that fact, it is with the verb polarize or the deverbal

noun polirazation that de-can combine. We need to distinguish a unit that may be

neither STEM nor WORD but of which we can say that it is with this unit that a particular affix is combined. We shall call this unit the base.

We can now make analogous statements like the following:

Jealous = base jeal- + affix –ous

[the base here is identical with the stem, but neither is a word in English]

polarize = base polar + affix –ize

depolarize = affix de- + base polarize

[the base here is not identical with the stem is either case, the stem being

pole; but both the bases and the stem are English words]

(be) spectacled [‘wearing spectacles’] = base spectacle- + affix-ed [here the

base is identical with the stem, but although the word spectacle exists in

English it is only the stem of the plural spectacles that costitutes the base in spectacled.]

The stem is thus the form of a word stripped of all affixe that are recognizable as such in English; eg; man, person, apply, abattoir, rhinoceros. If

abattoir is a stem, despite the existence in English of reservoir (with an identical

ending, both words referring to physical constructions), how should we regard

reservoir itself? Should we regard it as having a stem identical with the word reserve? Again, should we relate reserve, preserve, deserve as having a common

stem, perhaps seeing this as identical with the verb serve?

Various arguments come into play: etymological, semantic, even

phonological. We note, for instance, that the s in reserve is pronounced /z/, where

that in serve is pronounced /s/. The more indications there are of the remoteness of

connection between one word and another, as perceived by the native speaker, the

more we must be influenced to regard polysyllabic words like reservoir and reserve,

deceive and conceive as individual stems. The observe is actual productivity. Where,

beside depolarize, we find new words being currently created such as decompress

and deregulate, the de- element having a similar relation in each, we know that we

2.5 Word-Formation Processes

Word-formation is traditionally divided into two kinds: derivation and compounding (Booij 2005: 5). Whereas in compounding the constituents of a word are themselves lexemes, this is not the case in derivation. For instance, -ity is not a

lexeme, and hence TAXABILITY is a case of derivation. The word INCOME TAX, on the other hand, is a compound since both INCOME and TAX are lexemes.

The word-formation processes or the morphological processes are the processes of forming new words with the rules of morphology.

2.5.1 Suffixation

Suffixation is putting a suffix after the base, sometimes without, but more usually with, a change of word class; eg: friend + less (Quirk et.al., 1992:

1520).

As with prefixes, we shall concentrate on those suffixes that are in commonest productive use, but where our treatment of prefixes was on a generally

semantic basis, our treatment of suffixes is on a generally grammatical basis. This is

because, while prefixes primarily effect a semantic modification of the base, suffixes have by contrast only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function (for example the word class) of the base.

2.5.2 Conversion

Conversion assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form; eg: (we shall) carpet (the room) – verb from noun.

Conversion is the change in form class without any corresponding change of form (Bauer 1983: 32). Thus the change whereby the form napalm, which had been

used exclusively as a noun, came to be used as a verb (They decided to napalm the

village) is case of conversion.

Conversion is frequently called zero-derivation, a term which many scholars prefer. Most writers who use both terms appear to use them as synonyms.

Convertion is the derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class without addition of an affix (Quirk et.al., 1992: 1558). In this way, conversion is closely analogous to suffixation (as distinct from prefixation). For example, the verb release (as in They released him) corresponds to a noun release

(as in They ordered his release), and this relationship may be seen as parallel to that

between the verb acquit (as in They acquitted him) and the noun acquittal (as in They ordered his acquittal):

VERB DEVERBAL NOUN

SUFFIXATION acquit acquittal

Conversion is unusually prominent as a word-formation process, through both the variety of conversion rules and their productivity.

2.5.3 Back-formation

The great majority of back-formations in English are verbs (Bauer 1983: 230). A back-formation is a subspecies of a folk etymology that results in a totally new listeme entering the language. This occurs when a learner encounters a word that contains a sound sequence that sounds like a particular suffix. The word doesn’t in fact contain that suffix, in the minds of the other people using it, but the learner doesn’t know that. Consequently, the learner’s word-analysis machinery strips off the apparent suffix, and invents a meaning for the leftover part by subtracting the apparent suffix’s meaning. Some words that entered English this way are juggle, burgle, televise and fluoresce. The word burglar, referring to someone who enters a

house to commit burglary, was in common use in English in the 1500s. Sometime

around 1870, the word burgle first appeared. Where did it come from? Evidently,

seduced by pairs like write–writer, fiddle–fiddler, meddle–meddler, and wrangle– wrangler, some enterprising person assumed that burglar was made up of a verb burgle plus the -er suffix present in those words. Just as a writer is someone who

writes, and a meddler is someone who meddles, this learner thought, a burglar must be someone who “burgles.” That is, the new verb burgle, by the logic of

wordformation, must mean whatever it is a burglar does; burglars steal, so burgling

using burgle as a verb meaning “steal” – “Joe, I heard your house was burgled last

night!” Because the burgle + -er derivation seems so plausible as analysis for burglar, the newly back-formed word caught on, and now is used widely in British

English, though not so widely in American English. The same thing happened to

juggler. Televise is back-formed from television (originally tele+vision); fluoresce

from fluorescent. The same logic underlies the recent introduction of the verb to lase,

from laser. Laser was originally an acronym for Light Amplification by the

Stimulated Emission of Radiation – no -er suffix involved.

Pairs of words like advise ~ advisor, burgle ~ burglar, inspect ~ inspector, edit – editor, suggest an identical relationship between the member which from the

synchronic viewpoint of the ordinary language user is perfectly correct. But as a matter of historical fact, while advisor and inspector were indeed formed from advise and inspect by suffixation, we have derived burgle and edit from burglar and editor, analysing these on the anlogy of other agential nouns. This is the process known as ‘back-formation’, and in addition to well-established items, whether from long ago (like laze from lazy) or more recently (like televize from television), new formations of this kind contimue to be made. The process is particularly fruitful in creating denominal verbs. It should be noted that new formations tend to be with some hesitation, especially in respect of the full range of verbal inflexions. For example, the textual instances was significantly in the base form, self-destruct, but although

destroy than when (as occasionally) ordinary verb inflections are added: ?’ The

organization self-destructed in 1985’. So also we had the agential baby-sitter before

the verb baby-sit, and the base form (‘Will you baby-sit for me?’) before inflected

forms (‘He baby-sat for them’). Other back-formations continue to display their lack

of established acceptability: *(They) sight-saw, *(She) housekept.

A particularly productive type of back-formation relates to the noun compounds in –ing and –er. For examples, the verbs:

bottle-feed brain-wash chain-smoke day-dream dry-clean

fire-watch house-hunt house-keep lip-read sight-see

sleep-walk spring-clean window-shop

Less commonly, we have nouns from adjectives by back-formation: eg polymer from polymeric.

2.5.4 Abbreviations

Abbreviations are similar in nature to blends, because both blends and abbreviations are amalgamations of parts of different words (Plag, 200:160). Abbreviation has in common with truncation and blending that it involves loss of material (not addition of material, as with affixation), but differs from truncation and blending in that prosodic categories do not play a prominent role.

It is of the essence in lexicalization that, however lengthy and complex the formation of an item, it comes to be regarded as a single unit in relation to the meaning so lexicalized. In consequence, it is not the constituents of the word in combination that are seen as conveying this meaning but its individuality as a whole. Provided any part of the item is itself sufficiently individual to call up the whole, it can be shortened to a form which is linguistically convenient but need not reflect the morphological make-up of the full form. For example, bus (from omnibus), ad (from advertisement), bit (in information processing, from binary digit); TV (from television) (Quirk et.al., 1992: 1520). We distinguish three highly productive ways in

which abbreviation is involved in English word-formation, giving us CLIPPING, ACRONYMS, and BLENDS.

2.5.5 Clippings

Clipping refers to the process whereby a lexeme (simplex or complex) is shortened, while still retaining the same meaning and still being a member of the same form class (Bauer 1983: 233). Frequently clipping results in a change of stylistic level. The unpredictability concerns the way in which the base lexeme is shortened. Especially in informal usage, we tend to show our familiarity with polysyllabic words (especially nouns), by shortening them, often to a single syllable. The ‘clipping’ seems often to start from the graphic form, since the surviving fragment is usually initial and need not constitute either prosodically or semantically the salient part of the original:

ad or ꞌadvert <BrE> from adꞌvertisement (also adverꞌtisement in AmE)

ꞌcosec /ꞌkǝʊsek/ from cosecant /kǝʊꞌsi:kǝnt/ (trigonometry)

ꞌdemo from demonꞌstration (but not the verb eꞌxamine or

examiꞌnation in the medical sense)

French fries <esp AmE> from French fried potatoes <esp AmE>

gents from gentlemen’s (especially = gentlemen’s

lavatory)

lab from laꞌboratory <BrE>, ꞌlabora ̩tory <AmE>

lib from liꞌberation (but only in lexicalizations like

Women’s Liberation Movement)

ꞌmemo from memoꞌrandum

mike fromꞌmicro ̩phone

ꞌphoto from ꞌphotograph (but not phoꞌtography)

prof from proꞌfessor

pseud <BrE> from ̩pseudo- (̩intelꞌlectual)

pub from ̩ publicꞌhouse ꞌstereo from ̩ stereoꞌphonic

telly <BrE> from ̩ teleꞌvision

Less commonly, the clipped form has resulted from discarding the initial part of a word, as in:

phone from ꞌtelephone (but not, eg, microphone)

plane from ꞌairplane, ꞌaeroplane

Occasionally, syllables have been discarded at both ends of a word, as in:

flu from ̩ influꞌenza

fridge from reꞌfrigerator

2.5.6 Acronyms

Acronyms are words formed from the inital letters of words that make up a name (Quirk et.al., 1992: 1581). New acronyms are freely produced, especially by scientists and administrators, and particularly for names of organizations. There are two main types:

[A] Acronyms which are pronounced as sequences of letters (also called ‘alphabetism’), eg C.O.D /̩si:ǝʊꞌdi:/, are most like ordinary abbreviations and hence most peripheral to word-formation. In writing, the more institutionalized formations have no periods between the letters. The use of

capitals in not determined solely by whether the items abbreviated are proper nouns.

[i] The letters represent full words:

c/o (in) care of [used on envelopes]

C.O.D. cash on dilivery

DIY <informal BrE> do-it-yourself [used of self-help repairs, etc]

EEC European Econimic Community

eg exempli gratia [Latin, ‘for example’]

ESP extra-sensory perception

FBI Federal Bureau of Inveatigation

ie id est [ Latin, ‘that is’]

KL Kuala Lumpur

LA Los Angeles

MIT Massachussets Institute of Technology

p.c <BrE. Postcard

UN the United Nations

VIP very important person

[ii] The letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word:

GHQ General Headquarters

ID identification (card)

TB tuberculosis

TV television

Acronyms of Type [A] are sometimes given a quasi-phonetic written form. For example, M.C. [‘Master of Ceremonies’] may be informally written as Emcee; DJ

[‘Disc Jockey’] as Deejay, Ok as Okay. In AmE, Jaycee is used for Junior Chamber of Commerce (member).

[B] Acronyms which are pronounced as a word, eg NATO /ꞌne ɪtǝʊ/, are often used without our knowing what the letters stand for:

laser lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

NATO the North Atlantic Treatry Organisation

UNESCO the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

WASP White Anglo-Saxon Protestant <AmE, informal>

Acronyms of this second type frequently derive from phrasal names specially devised for their acronymic convenience. For the same reason, initial syllables are well as initial letters may be involved, as in binac (ꞌbinary automatic computer’).

2.5.7 Blends

As the term suggests, blends are formations in which a compound is made by ‘blending’ one word with another (Quirk et.al., 1992: 1583). Enough of each is normally retained so that the complex whole remains fairly readily analysable. To this end also, and preserving the normal attributes of the compound such that end-part is the thematic base to which the new initial end-part is related, the blend tends to have as a whole the prosodic shape of the untruncated end-part. Thus on the basis of

hoꞌtel we preface enough of motor both to achieve the new constrast with hotel ( a

hotel specially equipped for the needs of motoring guests), and to achieve the dominance of the base pattern: moꞌtel.

So too with a special kind of lunch which has some of the features of breakfast, we have coined brunch; if the meal had been primarily conceived as a

kind of breakfast, we might have had instead (*) lunkfast. Thus we may conclude

looks like a fork (which might have given us (*) foon). Note the distinction between tigon (wheree the sire is a tiger) and liger (where the sire is a lion). In such

formations, an attempt seems to be made at matching the pragmatic position with a linguistic form.

Blending is very productie process, especially in commercial coinages, which suggests that its rather daring playfulness is popular. Where many types of neologism are criticized adversely (eg as ‘unnecessary jargon’), blend seem rather to be enjoyed. Perhaps in consequence, many of them are short-lived or never achieved currency beyond the advertising copy in which they may originate. Eg: swimꞌsation of a swimsuit that will cause as sensation; lubriꞌtection of a new lubricant that will

provide engine protection.

Others not merely becoe well-established but act as a highly productive model for new formations: ꞌcheese ̩burger, shrimp ̩burger; ̩washeꞌteria

̩candyꞌteria, ̩lunchaꞌteria, etc (and we note again that a matching in prosodic shape is

a determining factor in establishing the blended form). Others again achieve a brief surge of productivity in response to an outstanding event. In the years following the Washington Watergate scandals, the name ꞌWater̩gate, ꞌBilli̩gate, ꞌcattle̩gate. All of

these denoted specific cases of political crisis resulting from scandalous deception connoted by the underlying Watergate, the whole of which (with the associations)

Some further and more general examples: ꞌbreathal ̩yser [breath + ꞌanal ̩yser]

eꞌlectro ̩cute [electro + ꞌexe ̩cute]

ꞌheli ̩port [helicopter + ꞌair ̩port]

ꞌnews ̩cast [news + ꞌbroad ̩cast]

ꞌpara ̩troops [ꞌpara ̩chute + troops]

smog [smoke + fog]

̩

stagꞌflation [̩ stagꞌnation + inꞌflation]

ꞌtele ̩cast [television + ꞌbroad ̩cast]

ꞌtrave ̩logue [travel + ꞌcata ̩logue]

there is rather more radical abbreviation in biꞌonic (biological + electronic). Items

like bit (‘binary digit’), interpol (‘international police’), moped (‘motor

pedal-cycle’), telex (‘teleprinter exchange’), are outside the general pattern outlined above,

both in the way in which the word-fractions are made up and in the disregard for the prosody of a thematic starting-point.

2.6 Compounds

Compounding is adding one base to another, such that usually the one placed in front in some sense subcategorises the one that follows; eg: blackbird, armchair, bottle-feed; but contranst, for example, ‘bahuvrihi’ compounds such as heavyweight.

English speakers have long shown a strong preference for putting existing words together to create new words. This process is called compounding. (Finegan and

Besnier, 1989: 107). A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically adn semantically as single word. In principle, any number of bases may be involved, but in English, except for a relatively minor class of items (normally abrreviated), compounds usually comprise two bases only, however, internally complex each may be.

The corresponding morphological process is called compounding or affixation (Mel’cuk 2006: 296). Compounding can take place within any of the word classes, but – within the present framework – we shall in effect be dealing only with the productivity of compounds resulting above all in new nouns and, to a lesser extent, adjectives. These may involve the combination of the unchanged base (as in

taxfree); or the first element may be in its special ‘combining form’ (as in the noun trouserleg or the adjective socioeconomic); or the second element may have a suffix

required by the compound type (as in the noun theatre-goer or the adjective blue-eyed); or both elementss may have a form that is compound-specific (as in the laundromat) .

Before we consider the individual types, we shall give some attention to two issues: first, the conditions for lexicalization in respect of a particular collocation of bases; second, the formal characteristics of the composition thus masde into an institutionalized whole.

2.6.1 Noun Compounds

2.6.1.1 Type ‘Subject and Verb’

[A] ꞌSUN ̩RISE: subject + deverbal noun (‘The sun rises’). This is a very productive type. For example:

bee-sting catcall daybreak earthquake

frostbite headache heartbeat landslide

nightfall rainfall sound change toothache

[B] ꞌRATTLE ̩SNAKE: verb + subject (‘The snake rattles’). This type is only weakly productive. For example:

crybaby driftwood drip coffee flashlight

glowworm hangman playboy popcorn

[C] ꞌDANCING ̩GIRL: verbal noun in –ing + subject (‘The girl dances’); very productive. For example:

cleaning woman firing squad flying machine

investigating committee wading bird washing machine

working party

Sequences with converse stress pattern (̩flyingꞌsaucer, ̩workingꞌman) show a

lesser degree of institutionalization as compounds; constrast ꞌworkman.

2.6.1.2 Type ‘Verb and Object’

[A] ‘BLOOD ̩TEST: object + deverbal noun (‘X tests blood’). This is a moderately productive type. Self is a common first constituent. Some compounds

denote and activity (eg: handshake), some the result of an activity (eg: bookreview),

and some could be either (meat delivery). For example:

birth-control book review crime report

dress-design haircut handshake

meat delivery office management suicide attempt

self-control self-destruction tax cut

[B] ꞌFAULT ̩FINDING: object + verbal noun in –ing (‘X finds fault(s)’; man-eating). This type is very productie. For example:

air-conditioning book-keeping book-reviewing

brainwashing dressmaking housekeeping

letter-writing oath-taking sightseeing

story-telling town-planning

[C] ꞌTAX- ̩PAYER: object + agential noun in –er (‘X pays tax(es)’). This is a very productive type, and designates concrete (usually human) agents; note however

dishwasher, lawn-mower, penholder, record-player. For example:

cigar smoker computer-designer crime reporter

gamekeeper hair-splitter language teacher

matchmaker radio-operator songwriter

stockholder window-cleaner

[D] ꞌPUNCH ̩CARD: verb + object (‘X punches the card’). For example:

call-girl drawbridge pin-up girl

punchball push-button scarecrow

[E] ‘CHEWING ̩GUM: verbal noun in –ing + object (‘X chews gum’); very

productive. For example:

cooking apple drinking-water eating apple

boiling fowl <BrE> reading material spending money

roasting joint braising steak

2.6.1.3 Type ‘Verb and Adverbial’

[A] ꞌSWIMMING ̩POOL: verb noun in –ing + adverbial (consisting of a prepositional phrase; ‘X swims in the pool’). This is a very productive type. Several adverbial relations are involved. For example:

PLACE: diving board [‘dive from a board’]

drinking cup [‘drink out of a cup’]

freezing point [‘freeze at a point’]

frying pan <BrE> [‘fry in a pan’]

hiding-place [‘hide in a place’]

living-room [‘live in room’]

waiting room [‘wait in a room’]

writing desk [‘write at a desk’]

INSTRUMENTAL: adding machine [‘add with a machine’]

baking powder [‘bake with powder’]

carving knife [‘carve with a knife’]

sewing machine [‘sew with a machine’]

walking stick [‘walk with a stick’]

washing machine [‘wash with a machine’]

[B] ꞌDAY ̩DREAMING: adverbial + verbal noun in –ing (‘X dreams during the

day’). This is a moderately productive type ( ocean going). For example:

PLACE: churchgoing [‘going to church’]

horse riding [‘ride on a horse’]

tight-rope walking [‘walk on a tight rope’]

sun-bathing [‘bathe in the sun’]

TIME: sleepwalking [‘walk in one’s sleep’]

handwriting [‘write by hand’]

OTHER: shadow-boxing [‘box against a shadow’]

[C] ‘BABY ̩SITTER: adverbial + agential noun in –er (‘X’ sits with the baby’). This is a moderately productive type. For example:

PLACE : backswimmer [‘swim on the back’]

city-dweller [‘dwell in the city’]

factory-worker [‘work in a factory’]

gate-crasher [‘crashes through a gate’, ie

‘uninvited guest’]

housebreaker [‘break into a house’]

playgoer [‘go to a play’]

tight-rope walker [‘walk on a tight rope’]

sun-bather [‘bathe in the sun’]

theatre-goer [‘go to the theatre’]

[D] ‘HOME ̩WORK: adverbial+ deverbal noun (‘X works at home’). This is a moderately productive type. For example:

PLACE : boat-ride [‘ride in a boat’]

field-work [‘work in the field’]

table talk [‘talk at a table’]

moon walk [‘walk on the moon’]

TIME : daydream [‘dream during the day’]

night flight [‘fly during the night’]

INSTRUMENTAL: gunfight [‘fight with a gun’]

OTHER : smallpox vaccination [‘vaccinate against smallpox’]

tax-exemption [‘exempt from tax’]

telephone call [‘message by the telephone’]

So also self-determination.

[E] ꞌSEARCH ̩LIGHT: verb + adverbial (‘X searches with a light’). Several

adverbial ralations are involved. For example:

springboard [‘spring from a board’]

workbench [‘work at a bench’]

INSTRUMENTAL : grindstone [‘grind with a stone’]

plaything [‘play with a thing’]

Some further examples: cookbook <esp AmE>, fry-pan <AmE>, restroom <esp AmE>, swimsuit <esp AmE>, washroom <esp AmE>. The labels indicate the popularity of this pattern in AmE; BrE there is a corresponding preference for the patten.

2.6.1.4 Verbless Compounds: Type ‘Subject and Object’

[A] ꞌWIND ̩MILL: noun1 + noun2 (noun1 [powers/operates] noun2’,

‘the wind powers the mill’). For example:

air-brake air rifle cable car coar fire (̩.ꞌ. in BrE)

motorcycle steam engine gas cooker (̩.ꞌ.. in BrE) hydrogen bomb (̩...ꞌ. in AmE)

[B] ꞌTOY ̩FACTORY: noun1 + noun2 (‘noun2 [produces/yields] noun1’, ‘the factory produces toys’). For example:

tear gas textile mill water pistol gold mine

[C] ꞌBLOOD ̩STAIN: noun1 + noun2 (‘noun1 [produces/yields] nouns2’, ‘the blood produces stains’). For example:

bloodstain canesugar eiderdown foodpoisoning gaslight

hay fever sawdust tortoise-shell whalebone

[D] ꞌDOOR ̩KNOB: noun1 + noun2 (‘noun1 [has] noun2’, ‘the door has a knob’).

This is a very productive type. Noun1 is inanimate. With animate nouns, we use a noncompound genitive phrase: compare the ꞌtable ̩leg with the ̩boy’s ꞌleg. For example:

arrowhead bedpost bottleneck <metaphorical>

cartwheel piano keys shirt-sleeves

table leg telephone receiver television screen

[E] SEꞌCURITY ̩OFFICER: noun1 _ noun2 (‘noun2 [controls/works in connection

with] noun1’, ‘The officer looks after security’). For example:

chairperson deckhand fireman gasman

This is a very productive type, with the second constituent always a human agent. Indeed, so commonly has man been thus used (in its unmarked gender role, ‘human

adult’) that in some compounds it has a reduced vowel, /mǝn/, as in postman, draughtsman, fireman, workman, businessman. This item and its gender-free

alternative person might in fact be viewed as a suffix. Contrast the unreduced form

of man in ꞌhandy ̩man, perhaps because in this case the compound does not refer to a regular occupational role.

2.6.1.5 Type ‘Subject and Complement’

[A] ꞌGIRL ̩FRIEND: noun1 + noun2 (‘noun2 [is] noun1’, ‘the frien is a girl’). Noun1 often refers to a subset of the class denoted by noun2. For example:

blinker light drummer boy feeder bus killer shark

manservant oak tree pine tree tape-measure

numerous sequneces of this oppostitional type occur with phrasal prosody: ̩woman

ꞌwriter, ̩toy ꞌfactory [‘the factory is a toy’. And the question of ‘partial’ compound.

[B] ꞌDARK ̩ROOM: adjective + noun (‘noun [is] adjective’, ‘the roomis dark’. For example:

blackboard blackbird blueprint double-talk

highchair hothouse longboat madman

The initial constituents in knitwear and mincemeat were originally –ed participle

adjectives.

Along with this type should be considered many sequences with phrasal prosody:

̩

fancy ꞌdress ̩hot ꞌdog (ꞌ.̩. in AmE) ̩ illꞌomen ̩ ill reꞌpute

̩

ill ꞌwind ̩ risen ꞌcosts

Despite the apparent parallelism of: bad health.

He suffers from poor health.

ill health.

compounding is nonetheless suggested in the last by the fact that ill is not normally a

premodifier in noun-phrase structures, nor are past participles of intransitive verbs (risen). Semantically, moreover, some of these examples have a high degree of

lexicalization; on hot dog.

[C] ꞌFROG ̩MAN: noun1 + noun2 (‘noun2 [is like] noun1’, ‘the man is like a frog’). This is a very productive type. For example:

Kettledrum sandwich man tissue paper

[D] ꞌSNOW ̩FLAKE: noun1 + noun2 (‘noun2 [is of, consists of] noun1,’ ‘a flake of snow’). For example:

Breadcrumb breakfast time coffee time cough drops

Cowshed doghouse facecloth fire engine

Fish-pond flowerbed flypapeer safty belt

tearoom

2.6.1.6 Combining-Form Compounds

̩PSYCHO-AꞌNALYSIS: noun1 (in its ‘combining form’) + noun2 (= ‘noun2 [in respect of] noun1’), ‘the analysis of the psyche’. This is a highly productive type and various relations can be involved. Typically, the first constituent is neo-classical and does not occur as a separate noun bae in English, but the model has been widely imitated with commo bases, with a vovel (usually -o- but often –i-)

as a link between the two parts: ̩cryptꞌography, inꞌsecticide, etc. Also the use of

combining-form. Among common second constituents are –meter, -graph(y), -gram, -logy, and the formations are especially in the fields of science and learning. In

consequence, many are in international currency, adopted or adapted in numerous languages. Some miscellaneous examples:

ꞌagri ̩culture baꞌrometer ̩bioꞌphysics

̩

biotechꞌnology ꞌEuro ̩dollar ꞌhorti ̩culture

̩

microelecꞌtronics ̩porꞌnography ̩ psyꞌchology ꞌstereo-̩vision ̩ turbo-ꞌjet

also ꞌdrama ̩turgy, ꞌmetal ̩lurgy. On pseudo-. With ꞌstereo ̩typed and ̩stereoꞌphonic,

we have adjectives that are more commonly used than the corresponding nouns.

Componding may involve more than one combining-form; eg nephrolithotomy, neurolymphomatosis.

On the model of neo-classical combining-forms, we have compounds to whose initial base a connecting-o- is added; eg: ̩speeꞌdometer.

There is vacillation between ꞌkilometre and kiꞌlometre.

2.6.1.7 ‘Bahuvrihi’ Compounds

All the compounds to be listed in this section are formed on one or other of the patterns already described. Mos of them are like ꞌdark ̩room, others are like, for example, ꞌfrog ̩man or ꞌsnow ̩flake ([B], [C], [D]) respectively). The term ‘bahuvrihi’ refers not to their pattern of formation but to the relation they have with their referents. Neither constituent of such a compound refers to the entity named but, with a semantic movement that may be thought of as ‘lateral’, the whole refers

to a separate entity (usually a person) that is claimed to be characterized by the compound, in its literal or figurative meaning. Thus a ꞌhigh ̩brow means ‘an intellectual’, on the basis of the facetious claim that people of intellectual interest and cultivated tastes are likely to have a lofty expanse of forehead. Similarly ꞌheart ̩throb [A] for its non-bahuvrihi use) is someone who causes the heart to throb in a person of the opposite sex; ie ‘a sexually attractive person’. Many bahuvrihi compounds are (like highbrow) somewhat disparaging in tone and are used chiefly in

informal style. Somer further examples:

birdbrain blockhead bluebell butterfingers

egghead fathead featherbrain featherweight

hardback hardtop heavyweight hunchback

loudmouth paleface paperback pot-belly

redcap scarecrow shellback

also hardcap ‘construction worker’ <esp AmE>.

2.6.2 Adjective Compounds

ꞌMAN-̩EATING: object + -ing participle (‘X eats men’; also faultfinding). This is a very productive type. Self is a frequent first constituent but

taes secondary stress. For example:

breathtaking fact-finding heart-breaking life-giving

record-breaking ̩self-deꞌfeating ̩seflf-ꞌjustifying

in mouth-watering, there is causative relatio: ‘X makes the mouth water’. In informal

AmE we have such a compound used to premodify an adjective in finger-licking good.

2.6.2.2 Type ‘Verb and Adverbial’

[A] ꞌOCEAN-̩GOING: adverbial + -ing participle (‘X goes across oceans’, daydreaming). For example:

fist-fighting law-abiding lip-sucking

[B] ꞌHEART ̩FELT: adverbial + -ed participle (‘X feels it in the heart’). The type is particularly productive when the noun has agential meaning and consists of self-styled, self-appointed, self-employed, self-taught (but a self-addressed envelope is

one that is addressed to oneself.) examples are:

airborne cost-led custom-built handmade

typewritten hunder-struck town-bred weather-beaten

also speech (-) and language (-) impaired.

[C] ̩HARD-ꞌWORKING: adverb/adjective + -ed participle (‘X works hard’, ‘X looks

good’). For example:

easy-going everlasting far-reaching fresh-baked

high-sounding sweet-smelling well-meaning

[D] ̩QUCKꞌFROZEN: adjective/adverb + -ed participle (‘X was frozen quickly’). For

example:

dry-cleaned far-fetched fresh-baked

long-awaited ꞌnew-̩laid true-born well-meant ꞌwide ̩spread

2.6.2.3 Type ‘Verbless’

[A] ‘FOOT ̩SORE: noun-based adverbial of respect + adjective (‘sore in respect to (one’s) feet. This is a very productive type, espcially with certain adjectives that have prepositional complementation, such as free, (from), proof (against), weary (of). For example:

airsick airtight camera-ready carsick

Homesick oven-ready tax-free war-weary

watertight

With some there is phrasal stress, as in ̩class-ꞌconscious, ̩ cost-efꞌfective, ̩

labour-inꞌtensive and (involving a combining form), ̩stereoꞌphonic.

[B] ̩GRASS-ꞌGREEN: noun (denoting basis of comparison) + adjective (‘as green as grass’). This is a fairly productive type and the items formed can usually be used also as nouns: stress is variable, but phrasal stress is usual. Some examples:

age-old ash-blonde bottle-green brick red

jet black midnight blue rock-hard sea-green

[C] ̩GREY-ꞌGREEN: adjective + adjective in a coordinating relation but where the phrasal stress pattern implies that the first is relatively thematic, the second focal and hence semantically dominant. ‘The colour is basically green but with a greyish tint’. Informally, this can be reflected in the first adjective having the suffix –y or –ish, as

in reddish-brown, greeny-grey. Coordinate compounds are, however, widely used

with reference to international relations where (despite the phrasal stress) parity is theoretically fundamental: ‘A Japanese-American trade pact is about to be signed’.

In many coordinate compounds the first element assumes a combining form. Some examples of various types:

deaf-mute Franco-German phonetic-syntactic

psychosomatic Russo-Chinese sensori-neural

Sino-Italia socio-economic Swedish-Brazilian

tragi-comic

2.7 Reduplicatives

In word-formation, reduplication is repetition of morphemes indicates a strenghtening of the expression (Bussmann, 1998:989). Some compounds have two or more constituents which are either identical or only slightly different, eg: goody-goody (chiefly noun, ‘a self-consciously virtuous person’, informal). The difference between the two constituents may be in initial consonants, as in walkie-talkie, or in

the medial vowels, eg: criss-cross. Most of the reduplicatives are highly informal or

familiar, and many belong to the sphere of child-parent talk, eg: din-din [‘dinner’].

The most common uses of reduplicatives (sometimes called ‘jingles’) are:

[i] to imitate sounds, eg: rat-a-tat [knocking on door], tick-tock [ of clock], ha ha [of

laughter], bow-wow [of dog];

[ii] to suggest alternating movement, eg: seesaw, flip-flop, ping-pong;

[iii] to disparage by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation, etc:

[iv] to intensify, eg: teeny-weeny, tip-top.

2.8 The Identification of Morphemes (Structuralist Approach)

There are six principles which we may apply in isolating and identifying morphemes (Nida 1967: 7). None of the principles is complete in itself; each is supplementary to the basic definition and must be considered so. If each were interpreted as being exclusive of all situations noted in the principle, the statements would be contradictory.

2.8.1 Principle 1

Forms which have a common semantic distinctiveness and an identical phonemic form in all their occurences constitute a single morpheme.

2.8.2 Principle 2

Forms which have a common semantic distinctiveness but which differ in phonemic form (i.e. the phonemes or order of the phonemes) may constitute a morpheme provided the distribution of formal differences is phonological definable.

2.8.3 Principle 3

Forms which have a semantic distinctiveness but which differ in phonemic form in such a way that their distribution cannot phonologically

defined constitute a single morpheme if the forms are in complementary distribution in accordance with the following restrictions:

1. Occurence in the same structural series has precedence over occurence in structural series in the determination of morphemic status.

2. Complementary distribution in different strutural series costitutes a basis for combining possible allomorphs into one morpheme only if there also occurs in these different structural series a morpheme which belongs to the same distribution class as the allomorphic series in question and which itself has only one allomorph or phonologically defined allomorphs.

3. Immediate tactical environments have precedence over nonimmediate tactical environments in determining morphemic status.

4. Contrast in identical distributional environments may be treated as submorphemic if the difference in meaning of the allomorphs reflects the distribution of these forms.

2.8.4 Principle 4

An overt formal differences in a structural series constitutes a morpheme if in any member of such a series, the overt formal differences

uan [ʊan] wan as u + an

un [ʊən] wen as u +en

uang [ʊaŋ] wang as u + ang; like the ang in the English anger

ong [ʊeŋ] weng as u + eng; starts with the vowel sound in book

and ends with the velar nasal sound in sing.

ü [y] yu as in German’üben’ or French ‘lune’ (To get this sound, say ‘ee’ with rounded lips)

üe [ye] yue as ü + e

üan [yan] yuan as ü + an

ün [yən] yun as ü + en

iong [yeŋ] yong as ü + eng

3. Tones

Chinese is a tonal language in which the tones convey differences in meaning.

In common speech there are four basic tones, represented respectively by the following tone marks:

‘ ˉˉ‘ for the first tone, high level ‘mā’ mother

‘ ˊ ‘ for the second tone, rising ‘má’ hemp

‘ ˇ ‘ for the third tone, low fall-rise ‘mǎ’ horse

‘ ˋ ‘ for the fourth tone, falling ‘mà’ to scold

When a syllable contains only a single vowel, the tone mark is placed directly above the letter as in ‘lù’ and ‘hěn. The dot over the vowel ‘i’ should be dropped if the tone mark is placed above it, as in ‘nǐ’, ‘nín’ and ‘píng’. When the final of the syllable is composed of two or more vowels, the tone mark should be placed above the vowel pronounced with the mouth widest open (e.g. hǎo).

The openness of the mouth for the vowels, from widest to the smallest is : ɑ o e i u ü.

4. Spelling Rules

1. At the beginning of a syllable, ‘i’ is written as ‘y’ (e.g. iě yě). ‘i’ is written as ‘yi’ when it forms a syllable all by itself (e.g. ī yī).

2. At the beginning of a syllable, ‘u’ is written as ‘w’ (e.g. uǒ wǒ).

When ‘ü’ is at the beginning of a syllable or forms a syllable by itself, a ‘y’ is added to it and the two dots over it are omitted (e.g. ǚ yǔ).

1. When the compound final ‘uei’ is combined with initials, it is simplified to – ui and the tone mark is written over ‘i’. For example: guì.

2. When the compound final ‘uen’ is combined with initials, it is simplified to –un. For example: lùn.

3. When ‘ü’ is combined with j, q, and x, the two dots over it are omitted. For example: xué. ‘y’is added to the compound final which start with ‘ü’ and the two dots over it are omitted. For example: Yǔyán Xuéyuàn.

‘j’, ‘q’, and ‘x’ are never combined with ‘u’ and ‘a’.

5. Tone Sandhi of ‘–‘

Normally ‘—‘ is pronounced in the first tone when it stands by itself, at the end of a word, phrase or sentence, or is used as an ordinal number. However, ‘—‘ is pronounced in the fourth tone when it precedes a first tone, second tone, or third tone syllable. It is read in the second tone when it precedes a fourth tone.

- - yì bēi (one cup) yī + ʹ yì + ʹ examples : yì ping (one bottle)

ˇ ˇ yì běn (one copy) yī + ` yí ` example : yí biàn (one time/once)

Curriculum Vitae

NAME : NURJAFA

SURNAME : LIAUFALDI

RESIDENCE : JL. Pukat VII Gg. Murni. No. 2B Medan PLACE/D.O.B : Medan/29th

MARITAL STATUS : Married

March 1972

N.I.D.N : 01 290372 01

MOBILE PHONE : 0812601-7185

EDUCATION :

• Master of Science (M.Si) in Linguistics, at the Postgraduate School at the University of Sumatera Utara, Medan, 2012 with Magna Cum Laude

• Master of Science (MSc) in Management Studies at Saint John Institute of Management Studies, Jakarta affiliated with Saint John University, Houston-Texas, USA, 2001 with Magna Cum Laude

• Master of Business Administration (MBA) in Marketing studies at Saint John Institute of Management Studies, Jakarta affiliated with Saint John University,

• SS (Sarjana Sastra-S1) in the Fakultas Sastra Universitas Methodist Indonesia, Medan, 1998 with Magna Cum Laude

• Electrical Engineering Department at Nommensen University, Medan, 1991-1993

• Senior High School (SMA) in Perguruan Letjen S. Parman, Medan, 1991, as the best student all year long

• Junior High School (SMTP) in Perguruan Teladan, Medan, 1988, as the best student all year long

• Elementary School (SD) in Perguruan Teladan, Medan, 1985, as the best student all year long

EXPERIENCE :

• From 1993 to 1997, as an English teacher and a tour guide

• In 1998, as an English teacher in Insearch Language Centre (ILC) at Australia Centre Medan

• In 1998, as an International Marketer at P.T. Tropical Canning & Frozen Industry, Kawasan Industri Medan

• In 1999, as an executive marketer at PT Layar Sentosa Shipping Corporation, Medan

• In 1999, in a managerial position in Superstar Virgo Cruise Ship, luxury ocean liner, Singapore

• From 1999 to 2003, as an English, Marketing and Management lecturer in ITMI, IBBI, IBSU in Medan

• From 2003 to 2008, as an English, Marketing and Management lecturer in PMCI, ICM, IT&B

• From 2004 until now, as an English, Marketing and Management lecturer in Perguruan tinggi ASM Cendana, and the head of BBA programme at Institute of Commerce & Management (ICM) college in Medan

• From 2007 until now as the supervisory board of religious and social activities in Magabudhi (Majelis Agama Buddha Theravada Indonesia), Medan

• From 2011-2012, as a lecturer in the Faculty of Letters in the University of Dharma Agung and the Fakultas Sastra Universitas Methodis Indonesia, Medan

• From 2010 until now as the President Agency Manager in one of insurance companies in Medan

LANGUAGE SPOKEN:

• Bahasa Indonesia

• English

• Hokkien

• Mandarin

• French

HOBBIES:

• Teaching

• Reading

• Swimming

• Travelling and

• Doing social activities