Definition of Bilingualism Typology of Bilingualism

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discusses two major points, namely, the theoretical description and the theoretical framework. The theoretical description presents the discussion of the theories used in this study. The theoretical framework focuses on how they are set as the framework of this study to address the research problems.

A. Theoretical Description

This section discusses two major topics, namely, bilingualism and code- mixing.

1. Bilingualism

a. Definition of Bilingualism

The writer proposes the definition written by Nababan 1984 that defines bilingualism as “…menggunakan dua bahasa dalam interaksi dengan orang lain .” This definition is supported by Fishman 1965, as quoted by Cantone 2007, p. 2, who states that bilingualism is an individuals ability to use more than one language. In line with the former definitions, the writer defines bilingualism in this study as a situation where the bilingual speaker is accustomed to using two different languages in daily life interaction. 8

b. Typology of Bilingualism

Weinreich 1953 and Ervin and Osgood 1954, as cited in the work of Hakuta 1986, p. 95, classify bilingualism into two types, namely, compound and coordinate bilingualism. Each type will be described briefly in the following parts. 1 Compound Bilingualism According to Hakuta 1986, compound bilinguals are products of a learning environment where the two languages are used concurrently. He also states, “They tend to fuse the two languages such that, in their mental system, concepts have verbal labels from both languages attached to them ” p. 95. This definition is supported by Weinreich 1968, as summarized by Romaine 1995, p. 79, who states, “The compound bilinguals would have one set of meanings and two linguistics systems tied to them.” Romaine 1995 provides her explanation with an example of a French-German bilingual. A French-German bilingual would know both German Buch - book and French livre, but he or she would tie them into the same mental representation, hence one common meaning p. 79. Therefore, it is also possible for an Indonesian-English compound bilingual to address both English ‘tofu’ and Indonesian ‘tahu’ as the same because he or she also has one set of meanings and one mental representation for them. Based on the explanation of compound bilingualism, the writer can conclude that compound bilinguals have the tendency to translate words from one language into another language and vice versa with no changes in meaning. It happens because they are able to address things with the languages they acquire but they have the same mental representation when they switch the languages. 9 Taking an example as stated before, for English-Indonesian compound bilinguals, the words ‘tofu’ and ‘tahu’ refer to the same mental representation with no difference in meaning. 2 Coordinate Bilingualism This type of bilingualism requires a different environment from the previous one. Hakuta 1986 states that coordinate bilinguals learn the two languages in separate environments, most commonly when they are educated in a language different from their home language pp. 95-96. Furthermore, Romaine 1995 believes that the words of the two languages are kept separate with each word having its own specific meaning. This explanation is represented in the example of a French-English bilingual whose first language is English, but then learns French at school. Because the two languages are given to the person in different contexts, it is believed that different conceptual systems would be developed Romaine, 1995, pp. 78-79. For example, Romaine says that this bilingual would have one specific meaning for the term livre which is different from the meaning of the word book. Based on Romaine’s theory, the writer concludes that, unlike an English-Indonesian compound bilingual who would take the meaning of the English word ‘tofu’ and Indonesian word ‘tahu’ as the same, a coordinate bilingual thinks that the English word ‘tofu’ has its own meaning and it is different from the meaning of the Indonesian word ‘tahu.’ The point here is that coordinate bilinguals believe that there is a difference in meaning between the languages they acquire. 10 In conclusion, it can be seen that there are some different characteristics between the two types of bilingualism. Weinreich 1968 believes that those differences are resulted from the way in which the languages have been learned as cited by Romaine, 1995, p. 78. Compound bilinguals, who learn two languages in the same context, would have a fused representation of the languages in mind Romaine, 1995, p. 79. On the other hand, coordinate bilinguals learn the two languages in separate environments. Hence, they give different meanings to the words from each language Romaine, 1995, pp. 78-79. 2. Code-mixing a. Definition of Code-mixing Firstly, the writer will begin by proposing the theory of Plaff 1979, as quoted by Romaine 1995, p. 124, who defines ‘mixing’ as a neutral cover term for both code-switching and borrowing. In the writer’s opinion, following Plaffs account, the term ‘mixing’ refers to code-mixing. Therefore, code-mixing is defined as a case of both code-switching and borrowing. Code-switching itself is defined by Grosejan 1998 as a complete shift from one language to the other, ... Cantone, 2007, p. 55. The shift can be found at clauses, which is called inter-sentential switching, or within clauses, which is known as intra-sentential switching Romaine, 1995, p. 123. On the other hand, Myers-Scotton 2006 states that borrowing is a process when a language takes in words from another language. He also claims that borrowing includes lexical elements, such as nouns and verbs p. 209. In other words, 11 lexical borrowing deals with the act of borrowing single words from one language in order to be used in another language pattern. In conclusion, a language phenomenon is called code-mixing if it has the features of code-switching or borrowing. This definition is supported by Muysken 2000 who states, Code-mixing refers to all cases where lexical items and grammatical features from two languages appear in one sentence. The following is an example of English-German code-mixing taken from Cantones work 2007, p. 70, I go to the movie with my fratello, which means I go to the movie with my brother.

b. Typology of Code-mixing