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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter discusses the theories used in the research. There are several parts that will be explained. They are a Theoretical Descriptions and b
Theoretical Framework. They provide information and theories related to the study. A theoretical framework is also included to show the relationship between
the study and the theories applied.
A. Theoretical Descriptions
In this chapter, some theories used in the research are discussed. The theories are educational research and development, instructional design model,
narrative, digital storytelling, instructional media, and senior high school curriculum.
1. Educational Research and Development
In designing the media the researcher uses Research and Development RD approac
h by adapting Borg and Gall’s theory 1983. Educational Research and Development RD
is an industry-based development model in which the findings of the research are used to design new products and
procedures, which then are systematically field tested, evaluated, and refined until they meet specified criteria of effectiveness, quality, or similar standards
Borg Gall, 1983.
RD exists to bridge the gap between research and practice. Based on Borg and Gall approach Borg Gall, 1983, this model consists of ten major
steps. They are: a.
Research and information collecting need analysis. It includes
several activities such as review of literature, classroom
observations, and preparation of report of state of the art.
b.
Planning. It includes defining skills, stating objectives, determining course sequence, and small scale feasibility testing.
c. Develop the preliminary form of product. In this step, the
preliminary product is developed by conducting the plans discussed previously. It includes preparation of instructional materials,
handbooks, and evaluating devices. d.
Preliminary field testing. After the preliminary product is finished, then it is tested to obtain the qualified evaluation of the product.
The method used in this step can be in a form of interview, distributing questionnaires, or observation.
e. Main product revision. The data obtained from the preliminary
field testing then are used as feedback in revising and improving the educational product.
f. Main field testing. The revised product is tested again to determine
the success of the product in meeting its objectives. This step determines whether the educational product under development
meet its performance objectives. It is also used to collect information that can be used to improve the course in its next
revision. g.
Product revision. If there are still any weaknesses in the main field testing, the product is considered failed in meeting its objectives.
The product revision must be done based on the suggestion in main field- test result.
h. Operational field testing. This step determines whether an
educational product is fully ready to be used in the school without the presence of the developer or the staff.
i. Final product revision. This part compiled the revision that has
been obtained in the operational field- testing result. j.
Dissemination and implementation. If the product is finished, dissemination and implementation are needed, especially if it is
used for teaching. However, there is always possibility that not all people can use it. Therefore, demonstration is done so that the
product can be used.
2. Instructional Design
The term
instructional design
refers to the systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for
instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation
Smith Ragan, 1999. To define instructional design, we have to describe the process involved in the systematic planning of instruction. At the most
basic level, the designer of the project must answer three major questions. There are three questions that must be answered Smith and Ragan, 1999:
1. Where are we going? What are the goals of the instruction?
2. How will we get there? What is the instructional strategy and the
instructional medium? 3.
How will we know when we have arrived? What should our tests look like? How will we evaluate and revise the instructional
materials? To develop this design, the researcher used an instructional model
proposed by Morrison, Ross, Kemp and Kalman 2011 or known as Kemp Model. The factors influencing learning outcomes that contribute to the
constructs of Kem p’s model are: a level of readiness in dealing with lesson
objectives, b instructional strategies related to objectives and student characteristic, c media and resource selection, d support for successful
learning, e determination of objective achievements, and finally f needed revisions for program improvements Morrison, Ross, Kemp and Kalman
2011. This model consists of nine elements for developing a design. They are:
Step 1
Identify instructional problems
. Needs assessment, goal analysis, or performance assessment can help to identify instructional
problems and specify goals for designing the instructional program.
Step 2
Examine learner characteristics capable of influencing the instructional decisions
. Three characteristics of learner traits include general characteristics of age, gender, and ethnicity;
specific entry characteristics of prerequisite skills for the instruction; and the learning styles. Non-conventional learners
include culturally diverse learners, adult learners, and learners with disabilities.
Step 3
Identify and analyze subject content and task components related to stated goals and purposes
. The definition of content areas addresses the instructional problem as well as identifies the
objectives, design the instructional strategies, develop test items, and create the instruction.
Step 4 Specify learner’s instructional objectives. The instructional
objectives, which meet specified criteria and embrace the three domains of objective; cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
domains, indicate what a learner is expected to do after completing a unit of instruction.
Step 5
Sequence the content within each instructional unit for logical learning
. The designer decides on the best sequencing strategy for presenting the instruction. The strategy can be task or concept
expertise according to the elaboration instructional design theory.
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