Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter covers some theories employed as the basis for the discussion. It aims to gain more understanding on the basic principles of the study so that the problems stated in the previous chapter could be solved. The discussion in this chapter includes Theoretical Description that discusses the relevant theories underlying this study and Theoretical Framework that focuses on the steps in developing the listening materials.

A. Theoretical Description

There are seven relevant theories discussed in this part, namely Kemp’s Instructional Design Model, School-Based Curriculum, Content-Based Instruction, Cooperative Learning, Theory of Listening, Material Development, and Syllabus.

1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

Instructional design is a method of effectively implementing the instructional process so that the objectives will be achieved. It is important to be considered in designing instructional materials as it functions to give a guideline for designing the materials Kemp, 1977: 5. Kemp’s instructional design model is a continuous cycle that requires constant planning, design, development and assessment to ensure effective instruction. In Kemp’s instructional design model, there are eight elements which should be considered in designing instructional materials. a. Determining the Goals, Topics, and General Purposes In determining the instructional design, it is important for the designer to consider goals of the system, and then list some topics and state the general purposes for teaching each topic. The selection of the topics should be from the simple to complex level, and should also consider the correlation with the subject content Kemp, 1977: 15. b. Learners’ Characteristics Identification It is important for the designer to find out characteristics of the learners for whom the instructions are designed. This step is very significant because students’ characteristics influence the emphasis in deciding the instructional design. The characteristics include learners’ capabilities, needs, and interests Kemp, 1977:18. c. Specifying Learning Objectives The designer has to specify the learning objectives so that what performances students are expected to achieve are clearly known. The objectives should be measurable and unambiguous Kemp, 1977: 23. d. Listing Subject Content The subject content supports each objective. It includes the organization of the content and task analysis. In organizing the content, the designer is to prepare the outline of the information that will be taught. Meanwhile, in analyzing the task, the designer is to list the procedural elements that will be employed in teaching Kemp, 1977: 44. e. Pre-assessment This step aims to know the background knowledge of the students’ on the topics. Pre-assessment has two kinds of test, namely pre-requisite testing and pre- testing. The first kind of test aims to determine whether the students have already had the basic knowledge of the topic. Meanwhile, the second aims to find which objectives the students have already mastered Kemp, 1977: 51. f. Selecting Teaching-Learning Activities and Instructional Resources It is important for the designer to select teaching learning activities and instructional resources that treat the subject content so that the students could accomplish the objectives. The designer could adjust the materials and methods that support the creation of an effective and efficient teaching-learning process Kemp, 1977: 55. g. Coordinating Support services The support services are budget, personnel, facilities, equipments, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan. All elements have to be prepared to prevent any possible constraints in designing the plan Kemp, 1977: 84. h. Conducting Evaluation The designer needs to evaluate the students in terms of their accomplishment of the objectives in order to revise and re-evaluate any phases of the plan that need improvement. The evaluation is conducted to check whether the materials are successfully implemented for the students Kemp, 1977: 91. In Kemp’s model, those eight elements are interdependent. It means that the decisions related to one element may affect others. The process of designing and developing materials can be started with whichever element the designer is ready to start with and can be moved back and forth to the other steps. Meaning to say, the designer can start at any point in the process which makes sense for a particular project and change the order of the steps and revisions as they make sense in the project Kemp, 1977: 9. The figure of Kemp’s model is presented below: Figure 2.1: Kemp’s Instructional Design Model Kemp, 1977: 9 Goal, topics, and general purposes Learners’ characteristics Learning objectives Subject content Pre-assessment Teaching- learning activities and resources Support services Evaluation Revise For the purpose of this study, the adaptation of Kemp’s instructional design model is employed in designing the instructional listening materials. In brief, Kemp’s instructional design steps which are adapted and employed in this study are determining the goals, topics, and general purposes, identifying learners’ characteristics, specifying learning objectives, listing subject content, pre- assessment, developing instructional materials, coordinating support services, and evaluation.

2. School-Based Curriculum