Definition of Speech Acts Speech Acts Classification

3. Speech Acts

a. Definition of Speech Acts

Yule 1996:47 defines speech acts as actions performed via utterance and are given more specific labels, such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request. Searle in Mey 1993:111 also asserts that the basic or minimal unit of linguistic communication is the performance of speech act. While Austin in Cutting 2002: 16 defines speech acts as the actions performed in saying something. In conclusion, speech act theory means that the action is performed when an utterance is produced. To identify the speech act being performed by a particular utterance, the context shall be taken into account as well so that the participants do understand the functional intention of their communicative event.

b. Speech Acts Classification

1 Austin’s Classification of Speech Acts Austin in Renkema 2004:13 defines all expressions of language must be viewed as acts. Austin‘s speech act theory can be produced on three different levels, they are: locution, illocution, and perlocution. a Locutionary Acts According to Yule 1996:48, a locutionary act is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression. In a short, it is what is said, the form of the words uttered which is meaningful in language use. Example: I‟ve been waiting you for two hours. I can‟t live without my wife. For most of the time people produced well-formed utterances, they do not mean to say them without a purpose. Thus, there is an illocutionary act. b Illocutionary acts Austin in Cutting 2002:16 states that the second dimension of classification is what the speakers are doing with their words. So, it is what is done in uttering the words, the function of the words. There is a specific purpose that the speakers usually have in mind. Yule 1996:48 also asserts that this kind of act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance. Example: In the locutionary act‘s example, we have ‗I‟ve been waiting you for two hours. ‘ If this utterance is analysed on illocutionary force, the speaker is ‗expressing‘ his feeling that he‘s so bored to wait for the one he‘s speaking to. c Perlocutionary acts Yule 1996:48 states that creating an utterance with a function with intending it to have an effect is called a perlocutionary act. It is what is done by uttering the words, the result of the words. Depending on the circumstances, the speakers will utter on the assumption that the hearer will recognise the effect the speakers intended. This is known as the perlocutionary effect. Example: With the same utterance from the illocutionary acts‘ explanation I‟ve been waiting you for two hours. ‘, the speaker has expressed his feeling so that the hearer is expected to have a reaction on what he‘s talking about. The perlocutionary act of this utterance is that the hearer would directly say sorry and ask him for forgiveness. 2 Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts Searle in Cutting 2002: 16 thinks that these analyses are not complete yet so there are more classifications to be made because every speech act falls into one of only five very general categories in the illocutionary acts, those are: a Declarations These are words and expressions that change the world by their very utterance, such as betting, declaring, and resigning. Example: I pronounce you a husband and a wife. I sentence you to death. b Representatives These are acts in which the words state what the speaker believes to be the case, such as describing, claiming, hypothesising, insisting, and predicting. Example: It is going to be a sunny day. All men are equal before the law. Abraham Lincoln c Commissives These are acts in which the words commit the speaker to future action, such as promising, offering, threatening, vowing, and volunteering. Example: I‟ll come to your home in two weeks. I‟ll persuade her to get that job right away. d Directives These are acts in which the words are aimed in making the hearer do something, such as commanding, requesting, inviting, forbidding, suggesting, and so on. Example: Can you close the door, please? Do not make us embarassed because of your attitude. e Expressives This group includes acts in which the words state what the speaker feels, such as apologising, praising, congratulating, deploring, and regretting. Example: I am so sorry to hear that, Tom. I am very delighted you could make it, Tin. Yule 1996:55 creates a summary of five general functions of speech acts with the features as follows: Table 1. The five general functions of speech acts following Searle 1979 Speech act type Direction of fit S= speaker; X= situation Declarations words change the world S causes X Representatives make words fit the world S believes X Commisives make the world fit words S intends X Directives make the world fit words S wants X Expressives make words fit the world S feels X

c. Types of Speech Acts in Terms of Directness