prefer to work with others to get assignments done, to set goals, to do field work, and to test out different approaches to completing a project.
4. Problem Solving Based Learning
One of the teaching methods in Sekolah Alam is problem solving based learning. In recent teaching and learning activities, problem solving is very
important and has a role as basic skill of the learners or students. Problem solving is a basic skill needed by today’s learners Kirkley, 2003. Through this method
students will improve their thinking skills in solving the problem in teaching learning activities. This involves basic skills, but also requires learners to use their
knowledge in variety of domains, perform critical analysis, and solve problems Kirkley, 2003. Because of that reason, many of teachers are interested to
implement problem solving based learning in their teaching activities and teach the students to be more active and have critical thinking skills in solving the
problem that was founding teaching learning activities then will lead them be a successful problem solvers. As Hardin 2002 stated many of educators, especially
those involved in professional curricula, are interested in problem solving and in how to support students’ development into successful problem solvers. To solve
the problems, learners have to want to do so, and they have to believe they can do that and solve the problem. Motivation and attitudinal aspects such as effort,
confidence, anxiety, persistence and knowledge about self are important in problem solving process since those aspects will make them more motivate and
confidence in solving the problem they found.
In 2002, Hardin stated that based on how problem and goal are represented; problems are categorized as ill defined or well defined. Iil defined is problems
with complex representations andor more than one solution. Then well defined are problems with discrete representations and finite goals.
Hardin 2002 noted conceptually, there are two kinds problem solving knowledge: declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Declarative
knowledge is knowing that something is the case. It is knowledge of facts, theories, events, and objects. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do
something. It includes motor skills, cognitive skills, and cognitive strategies. p.227
There are two types of problem solver in problem solving based learning. They are an expert problem solver and a novice problem solver. There are three
different of both problem solvers Kirkley, 2003: 1. Expert problem solvers have deeper understanding and representations of a
domain context. Expert problem solvers are able to draw on an extensive reservoir of past experiences solving analogous problems in the
same domain, can switch between various methods and strategies Jonnassen, 1997. Novice do not know as much as expert about context.
Novices make more errors than experts, and their errors are mostly related to misconceptions rather than carelessness or random guessing.
2. Expert problem solvers synthesize their rich declarative knowledge to generate a dynamically changing, personal mental model of the system or
problem space for solving a particular class of problems. Novices often
rely or naïve, less complete, poorly structured and even incorrect mental models. These mental modeling errors are often the source of novice
problem solving mistakes. 3. Expert problem solvers have positive attitude and confidence that
problems can be solved through persistent analysis Jonnassen, 1997. Novices often lack these properties.
After all explanation and understanding of problem solving above, Kirkley 2003 suggests a number of important principles for teaching problem solving:
1. For any “real-world” job or work skill, identify both the declarative and procedural knowledge components. Give each appropriate instructional
emphasis. 2. First introduce a problem solving context, then either alternate between
teaching declarative and procedural knowledge, or integrate the two. 3. When teaching declarative knowledge, emphasize mental models
appropriate to theproblem solving to come, by explaining knowledge structures and asking learners topredict what will happen or explain why
something happened. 4. Emphasize moderately- and ill-structured problem solving when far
transfer is a goalof instruction. 5. Teach problem solving skills in the context in which they will be used.Use
authenticproblems in explanations, practice and assessments, with scenario-basedsimulations, games and projects. Do not teach problem
solving as an independent,abstract, decontextualized skill.
6. Use direct deductive teaching strategies for declarative knowledge and wellstructured problem solving.
7. Use inductive teaching strategies to encourage synthesis of mental models and formoderately and ill-structured problem solving.
8. Within a problem exercise, help the learners understand or define the goal, then helpthem to break it down into intermediate goals.
9. Use the errors learners make in problem solving as evidence of misconceptions, notjust carelessness or random guessing. If possible,
determine the probablemisconception and correct it. 10. Ask questions and make suggestions about strategy to encourage learners
to reflecton the problem solving strategies they use. Do this either before or after the learnertakes action. This is sometimes called cognitive
coaching. 11. Give practice of similar problem solving strategies across multiple
contexts toencourage generalization.
12. Ask questions which encourage the learner to encourage the learner to grasp thegeneralizable part of the skill, across many similar problems in
different contexts. 13. Use contexts, problems and teaching styles which will build interest,
motivation,confidence, persistence and knowledge about self, and reduce anxiety.
14. Plan a series of lessons which grow in sophistication from novice-level to expert-levelunderstanding of the knowledge structures used.
15. When teaching well-structured problem solving, allow learners to retrieve it e.g., froma reference card. If the procedure is frequently used,
encourage memorization of theprocedure and practice until it is automatic. 16. When teaching moderately-structured problem solving, encourage the
learners to usetheir declarative context knowledge to invent a strategy which suits the context andthe problem. Allow many “right” strategies to
reach the solution, and compare themfor efficiency and effectiveness. 17. When teaching ill-structured problem solving, encourage the learners to
use theirdeclarative context knowledge to define the goal properties of an acceptablesolution, then invent a solution. Allow many “right”
strategies and solutions, andcompare them for efficiency and effectiveness.
5. Sekolah Alam
