CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In this chapter, the writer tries to give clear description of theoretical frame work which is material, syllabus and curriculum, School Based Curriculum,
evaluation, test the concept of test, types of test, types of item, the criteria of a good test and item analysis.
A. Material, Syllabus and Curriculum
Instructional materials are partially related to syllabus and curriculums. This close relation is the reason why the two are sometimes used synonymously
by some experts. In the present context, materials are an important component within the curriculum. They are used to achieve the instructional objectives which
have been formulated. Therefore, instructional materials used for teaching learning process must be selected carefully. They must be in consonant with the
curriculum so that the instructional objectives can be achieved. According to Richards and Rodgers 1986
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, the roles of instructional material within functional or communicative methodology might be specified as
follows: 1.
Materials will focus on the communicative abilities of interpretation, expression and negotiation.
2. Materials will focus on understandable, relevant and interesting
exchange of information rather than on the presentation of grammatical form.
3. Materials will involve different kinds of texts and different media,
which the learners can use to develop their competence through a variety of different activities and tasks.
3
Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, p. 30
The world curriculum is used interchangeable with syllabus. A syllabus is a reference of the courses a teacher teaches or intends to teach. Penny Ur stated
that “syllabus is a list of all the things that are to be taught in the courses”.
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Syllabus is a specification of what is to be taught in a language program and the order which it is to be taught. A syllabus may contain all or any of the
following phonology, grammar, functions, notions, topics, themes, tasks.
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The syllabus identifies what will be worked upon by the teacher and students in terms
of content selected to be appropriate to overall aims.
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From the statement above, the writer can conclude that syllabus is a specific plan of what is to be taught and a teacher translates into activities in the
classroom. A syllabus is designed based on school program and students degrees.
Besides that, the content of the syllabus must be suitable with students’ condition and relevant to early situation.
To make sure that learning process will run effectively, it’s needed for a syllabus compiler to include the kind of student learning experiences, and the brief
of material in the syllabus. Characteristic of a syllabus: 1. Consist of a comprehensive of list of:
a Is ordered easier, more essential items first
b Has explicit objectives usually expressed in the introduction
2 Is a public document
3 May indicate a time schedule
4 May indicate a preferred methodology or approach
5 May recommend materials
A number of different kinds of syllabuses are used in foreign language teaching. A list of these is provided below:
4
Penny Ur, A Discourse in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, p.176
5
David Nunan, Teaching English as a Second Foreign Language: Syllabus Design, Massachusetts: Heinle Thomson Learning, 2001, p. 159
6
Michael P. Breen, The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages: Syllabus Design
, 2004, p.151
1. Grammatical
A list of grammatical structures, such as the present tense, comparison of adjectives, relative clauses, usually divided into sections graded
according to difficulty andor importance. 2.
Lexical A list of lexical items girl, boy, go away… with associated
collocations and idioms, usually divided into graded sections. One such syllabus, based on a corpus a computerized collocation of
samples of authentic language. 3.
Grammatical-lexical A very common kind of syllabus: both structures and lexis are
specified: either together, in sections that correspond to the units of a course, or in two separate lists.
4. Situational
These syllabuses take the real-life contexts of language uses as their basis: sections would be headed by names of situations or locations
such as ‘Eating a meal’ or ‘In the street’. 5.
Topic-based This is rather like the situational syllabus, except that the headings are
broadly topic-based, including thins like ‘food’ or ‘The family’; these usually indicate a fairly clear set of vocabulary items, which may be
specified. 6.
Notional Notions are concepts that language can express. General notion may
include number, for example: ‘time’, ‘place’, ‘color’; specific notions look more like vocabulary items: ‘man’, ‘woman’, ‘afternoon’.
7. Functional-notional
Functions are things can do with language, as distinct from notions can express: examples are ‘identifying’, ‘denying’, ‘promising’. Purely
functional syllabuses are rare: usually both functions and notions are combined.
8. Mixed or multi-strand
Increasingly, modern syllabuses are combining different aspects in order to be maximally comprehensive and helpful to teachers and
learners; in these you may find specification of topics, tasks, functions and notions, as well as grammar and vocabulary.
9. Procedural
These syllabuses specify the learning tasks to be done rather than the language itself or even its meanings. Examples of tasks might be: map
reading, doing scientific experiments, story-writing. 10.
Process This is the only syllabus which is not pre-set. The content of the course
is negotiated with the learners at the beginning of the course and during it, and actually listed only retrospectively.
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Syllabus is part of curriculum excluding the element of curriculum evaluation. Furthermore, curriculum is one of terms that are used in broad sense
and narrower sense. In its broad sense it is used to refer to all learning experiences that a person encounters at school, including those aspects which influences them
only subconsciously. In its narrower sense it refers to a person’s experiences in one specific subject on the school timetable.
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Albert I. Oliver states that “curriculum is the education program of a school with attention to the elements of program of studies, program of activities
and program of guidance”.
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William B. Ragan explains: Curriculum traditionally has meant the subject taught in school, or the
course of study. The tendency in recent decades has been to use the term in a broader sense to refer to the whole life and program of the school. The
7
Penny Ur, A Discourse in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, p.178
8
Roger Bowers and Christopher Brumfit, Eds, Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching
, London and Basingstoke: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 1991, p. 11
9
Albert I.Oliver, Curriculum Improvement: A Guide to Problems, Principles, and Procedures
, New York: Dodd Mead and Company, 1965, p.15
term is used to include all the experiences of children for which the school accept responsibility.
10
David Nunan states that “curriculum is a large messy concept which can be looked at in a number of ways. A very broad definition is that it includes all of
the planned learning experiences of an educational system”.
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Richards describes a curriculum as follows: An educational program which states:
1. the educational purposes of the program the ends;
2. the content, teaching procedures and learning experiences which will
be necessary to achieve this purpose the means; 3.
some means for assessing whether or not the educational ends have been achieved.
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Stoop and Rafferty provide the definition: The curriculum represents the sum total of school-related activities
through which a child learns. Today, the aim of curriculum makers is to plan the learning situations so as to give direction and meaning to all
learning experiences continuity, sequence, and integration are considered the tree essentials necessary for a well organized curriculum.
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Yalden defines that “curriculum includes the goals, objectives, contents, processes, resources and means of evaluation of all the learning experiences
planned for pupils both in and out of school”.
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From the statements, the writer concludes that curriculum is the planned learning experiences of an educational system with attention to the elements of
program of studies, program of activities and program of guidance”.
15
10
William B. Ragan, Modern Elementary Curriculum, United State of America: Holt, Rineart and Winston, Inc, 1960, p. 13
11
David Nunan, Teaching English as a Second Foreign Language: Syllabus Design, Massachusetts: Heinle Thomson Learning, 2001, p. 55
12
Richards, J., J. Platt and H. Weber, Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics Longman: Harlow, 1985
13
Hicks, William Vernon and Blackington III, Frank H., Introduction to Education: An Orientation to Teaching, Ohio: Charles E. Merril Books Inc., 1965, p. 115
14
Janice Yalde, The Communicative Syllabus Evolution, Design and Implementation, UK: Prentice-Hall Internatioanl, 1987, p. 18
15
Albert I.Oliver, Curriculum Improvement: A Guide to Problems, Principles, and Procedures
, New York: Dodd Mead and Company, 1965, p.15
The government decided competency standard and basic competence in the curriculum. The competency standard, basic competence and core materials
based on the latest English syllabus for the second grade of Junior High School are stated as follows:
Table 2. 1 The Competency Standard, Basic Competence and Core Materials in the
Second Grade of MTs. Pembangunan
Standar Kompetensi Kompetensi Dasar
Materi Pembelajaran
Mendengarkan 7. Memahami makna dalam
percakakapan transaksional dan interpersonal pendek
sederhana untuk berinteraksi dengan
lingkungan sekitar 7.1. Merespon makna yang
terdapat dalam percakapan transaksional to get things
done dan interpersonal bersosialisasi pendek
sederhana secara akurat; lancar, dan berterima untuk
berinterkasi dengan lingkungan terdekat yang
melibatkan tindak tutor meminta, memberi, menolak
jasa, meminta, memberi,menolak barang
dan meminta, memberi dan mengingkari informasi,
meminta, memberi, dan menolak pendapat, dan
menawarkanmenerimamen olak sesuatu
7.2. Merespon makna yang terdapat dalam percakapan
transaksional to get things done dan interpersonal
bersosialisasi pendek sederhana secara akurat,
lancar, dan berterima untuk berinterkasi dengan
lingkungan terdekat yang melibatkan tindak tutur
meminta, memberi persetujuan, merespon
pernyataan,memberi perhatian terhadap
Percakapan yang memuat ungkapan-ungkapan berikut:
A: Do you mind accompany
me to go there? B: No, problem I want to,
but ….. A: Can I have some?
B: Sure, here you are A: Here’s some handicraft for
you. B: I can’t take this, sorry
A: Do you like it? B: Yes, I do
A: Have you done it? B: Sorry, I haven’t.
A: Do you think it’s good? B: I think so Sorry, I can’t
say anything Percakapan yang memuat
ungkapan-ungkapan berikut: A: What if I do it again?
B: Fine, with me A: I have to go now
B: Do you have to? A: ……………….
B: Right I see Hm…m -Hello, excuses me ………..
-Did you? Were you? -Thanks Bye….. see you
-Could I speak to …., please? -Well, I’m calling to……
pembicara, mengawali, memperpanjang dan
menutup percakapan, dan mengawali, memperpanjang
dan menutup percakapan telepon.
-Nice talking to you
8. Memahami makna dalam percakakapan transaksional
dan interpersonal pendek sederhana untuk
berinteraksi dengan lingkungan sekitar
8.1. Merespon makna yang terdapat dalam teks lisan
fungsional pendek sederhana secara akurat, lancar, dan
berterima untuk berinterkasi dengan lingkungan sekitar
8.2. Merespon makna yang
terdapat dalam monolog pendek sederhana secara
akurat, lancar, dan berterima untuk berinteraksi dengan
lingkungan sekitar dalam teks berbentuk narrative dan
recount Teks fungsional pendek:
- undangan - pengumuman
- pesan singkat Teks monolog berbentuk:
- narrative - recount
Berbicara 9.
Mengungkapkan makna dalam percakapan
transaksional dan interpersonal lisan pendek
sederhana untuk berinterkasi dengan
lingkungan sekitar 9.1 Mengungkapkan makna yang
terdapat dalam percakapan transaksional to get things
done dan interpersonal bersosialisasi pendek
sederhana dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa
lisan secara akurat, lancar, dan berterima untuk
berinteraksi dengan lingkungan terdekat yang
melibatkan tindak tutor: meminta, memberi, menolak
jasa, meminta, memberi,menolak barang
dan meminta, memberi dan mengingkari informasi,
meminta, memberi, dan menolak pendapat, dan
menawarkanmenerimamen olak sesuatu
Percakapan singkat memuat ungkapan-ungkapan:
A: Do you mind accompanying me to go
there? B: No, problem I want to,
but ….. A: Can I have some?
B: Sure, here you are A: Here’s some handicraft for
you. B: I can’t take this. Sorry
A: Do you like it? B: Yes, I do
A: Have you done it? B: I’m sorry, I haven’t
A: Do you think it’s good? B: I think sosorry, I can’t say
anything
Continue to the next page
9.2 Mengungkapkan makna yang terdapat dalam percakapan
transaksional to get things done dan interpersonal
bersosialisasi pendek sederhana dengan
menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan secara akurat, lancar,
dan berterima untuk berinterkasi dengan
lingkungan terdekat yang melibatkan tindak tutor:
meminta, memberi persetujuan, merespon
pernyataan,memberi perhatian terhadap
pembicara, mengawali, smemperpanjang dan
menutup percakapan, dan mengawali, memperpanjang
dan menutup percakapan telepon.
Percakapan pendek yang memuat ungkapan-ungkapan
berikut: A: What if I do it again?
B: Fine, with me A: I must go now
B: Do you have to? A: ……………….
B: Right I see Hm…m -Hello, excuses me ………..
-Did you? Were you? -Thanks Bye….. see you
-Could I speak to …..please? -Well, I’m calling to……
-Nice talking to you
10. Mengungkapkan makna dalam teks lisan fungsional
dan monolog pendek sederhana berbentuk
recount, dan narrative untuk berinteraksi dengan
lingkungan sekitar 10.1 Mengungkapkan makna
dalam teks lisan fungsional pendek sederhana dengan
menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan secara akurat, lancar
dan berterima untuk berinterkasi dengan
lingkungan sekitar
10.2 Mengungkapkan makna dalam monolog pendek
sederhana dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa
lisan secara akurat, lancar, dan berterima untuk
berinteraksi dengan lingkungan sekitar dalam
teks berbentuk recount dan narrative
- Teks fungsional pendek: Undangan
Pengumuman Pesan singkat
Teks monolog berbentuk narrativerecount
Membaca 11. Memahami makan dalam
esei pendek sederhana berbentuk recount, dan
narrative untuk berinterkasi dengan lingkungan sekitar
11.1. Membaca nyaring bermakna teks fungsional
dan essai pendek sederhana berbentuk recount dan
narrative dengan ucapan, tekanan dan intonasi yang
berterima yang berkaitan dengan lingkungan sekitar.
Teks essai berbentuk narrative recount
Ciri kebahasaan teks essai berbentuk narrative recount
Tujuan komunikatif recount and narrative.
Adapted from Content Standard of SMPMTs. English Syllabus 2006
The competency standard in the second grade is comprehends and expresses the meaning of short transactional and interpersonal conversation in
order to interact with the surrounding. Comprehend and express the meaning of functional oral text and short monologue in term of narrative and recount in order
to interact with the surrounding. Comprehend and express the meaning of short essay in form of recount and narrative in order to interact with the surrounding.
11.2. Merespon makna dalam teks fungsional pendek
sederhana secara akurat, lancar dan berterima yang
berkaitan dengan lingkungan sekitar
11.3. Merespon makna dan langkah retorika dalam esei
pendek sederhana secara akurat, lancar dan berterima
yang berkaitan dengan lingkungan sekitar dalam
teks berbentuk recount dan narrative
Langkah retorika teks narrativerecount
- Teks fungsional
Undangan Pengumuman
Pesan singkat - Tujuan komunikatif
- Ciri kebahasaan
Menulis 12. Mengungkapkan makna
dalam teks tulis fungsional dan esei pendek sederhana
berbentuk recount dan narrative untuk berinteraksi
dengan lingkungan sekitar. 12.1. Mengungkapkan makna
dalam bentuk teks tulis fungsional pendek sederhana
dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa tulis secara
akurat,lancar dan berterima untuk berinteraksi dengan
lingkungan sekitar
12.2. Mengungkapkan makna
dan langkah retorika dalam esei pendek sederhana
dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa tulis secara akurat,
lancar dan berterima untuk berinteraksi dengan
lingkungan sekitar berbentuk recount dan narrative.
- Teks Fungsional: Undangan
Pengumuman Pesan singkat
- Teks essai narrative recount - Ciri kebahasaan teks narrative
recount - Langkah retorika teks
narrative recount
The basic competence of listening skills are response and express the meaning of short transactional and interpersonal conversation accurately, fluently,
and effectively in term of 1 Asking, giving, and refusing for serve, 2 Asking, giving, and refusing for things, 3 Asking, giving, and deny for information, 4
Asking, giving, and refusing for opinion, 5 Offering, recieving, and refusing for things, 5 Asking and giving for agreement, 6 Responding the statement, giving
an attention for the speaker, 7 Begining, extending, and closing the conversation, 8 Begining, extending, and closing the phone conversation. Response and
express the meaning of functional in both oral and written text accurately, fluently, and effectively in order to interact with the surrounding. Response and
express the meaning of short monologue accurately, fluently, and effectively in order to interact with the surrounding in term of: narrative and recount. Read
clearly and express the meaning of short functional written text and essay in form of recount and narrative with the utterance, pressure, and intonation effectively
related to the surrounding. Response and express the meaning and rhetoric step of short essay by using kinds of written text accurately, fluently, and effectively
related to the surrounding in term of recount and narrative. The core materials consist of the conversations comprise of the following
functional expression. Short functional text consists of invitation, short message, and announcement. Short monologue consist of narrative and recount. Essay text
consist of essay text feature in form of narrative or recount, the objective of essay text communicative of recount or narrative and rhetoric step of narrative or
recount text. It is also consist of communicate objective and language features. The example of narrative text:
Why Does Rooster Have No Horns? Once there was a rooster that lived near a jungle. His name was Chike. He
was so handsome with his horns. Every morning Chike tool a walk to meet his friends.
One day he visited his uncle that was sick. On the way he met Gonga, a goat. Gonga admired his horns. He looked at Chike’s horns continuously. Then he
thought of clear plan to have the horns. “Chike, I want to go to the party. Can you borrow me your horns?” Gonga pleaded. “Please Chike, just one ready” ”All
right But just one day” Chike answered. How poor Chike was, because the goat never returned the horns back.
Although Chike looked for him everywhere he could not find Gonga. Since then a goat has horns and rooster has so.
The example of recount text: Riding a New Bicycle
Three years ago I got a new bike from my grand parents. It was the best gift for my tenth birthday. Unfortunately I could not ride on it yet. Then I tried to
learn riding it. On Sunday morning I pulled the bike by my hands to the football field
near my house. Then I held the rudder tightly, sat on the bike seat an pedaled slowly. Next I added the speed, the bike ran faster and faster. Suddenly the bike
was shaking and the movement was uncontrolled. Finally it hit a plant tree on the side of the field. I fell and when I felt my knee, it was bleeding.
Although all my body was in pain, I was satisfied.
B. School Based Curriculum