Commissive and Expressive Illocutionary Acts and Their Intended Meaning in Steels The Cottage.

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COMMISSIVE AND EXPRESSIVE ILLOCUTIONARY

ACTS AND THEIR INTENDED MEANINGS IN

STEEL’S

THE COTTAGE

ANAK AGUNG PUTU RINA DEWI 120 130 50 56

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF LETTERAND CULTURE

UDAYANA UNIVERSITY

BALI

2016

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The completion of this study is due to support and encouragement of the people surrounded me. By this opportunity, I would like to thank them for the endless help provided. First of all, I am thankful for the Almighty God for the blessing that I can complete this undergraduate thesis.

I would like to extend my thanks and appreciation to Dr. I Made Rajeg, M.Hum as my first supervisor, and Dr. I Made Netra, S.S., M.Hum as my second supervisor, for the guidance, advice, help and support. My thanks also addressed to my academic supervisor, Putu Ayu Asty Senja Pratiwi, S.S., M.Hum for always reminding me to complete this undergraduate thesis.

My gratitude also goes to the Dean of Faculty of Arts and Culture; Prof. Dr. Ni Luh Sutjiati Beratha, M.A and the Head of English Department; I Gusti Ngurah Parthama, S.S.,M.Hum with all of the teaching staff and administration staffs for education and facilities given as one of the students in Faculty of Arts and Culture Udayana University.

The last but not the least, I would like to express my gratitude to my beloved parents, friends, and relatives for giving me unconditional support that motivate me to give my best effort in completing this undergraduate thesis.

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I realize this study is far from perfection, Any suggestions, correction in relation to the improvement of this writing are generally appreciated.

Denpasar, April 1 2016

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ABSTRACT

This study is entitled Commissive and Expressive Illlocutionary Acts in Steel’s The Cottage. It discusses about the types of commissives and expressive illocutionary acts found in the novel, and the context of the situation with which the intended meaning of the data presented is investigated. The data was taken in form of utterance from a novel by Danielle Steel entitled The Cottage published in 2002.

To contextualize the data, dialogues were presented. The theory of Searle (1979) about classification of illocutionary acts consisting of ; assertive, directive, commissive, expressive, and declaration was used to categorized the data and classified them to the types of the acts. With purpose to investigate the intended meaning of the illocutionary acts, theory of context of the situation by Halliday (1985) was applied.

From the study, it can be concluded, in terms of types, that all types of acts of commissive and expressive illocutionary acts were found in The Cottage, they are : promising, offering, intending, refraining (commissive), and thanking, congratulating, apologizing, wishing, greeting, and attitude (expressive). Looking from the context of situation, the intended meanings found were advising, begging, offering, threatening, greeting, hoping, realizing, apologizing, and congratulating.

Keywords: illocutionary acts, context of situation, commissive, expressive

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...i

ABSTRACT ...iii

TABLE OF CONTENT ...iv

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...1

1.1Background of the Study ...1

1.2Problems of the Study ...3

1.3Aims of the Study ...4

1.4Scope of Discussion ...4

1.5Research Method ...4

1.5.1 Data Source ...4

1.5.2 Method and Technique of Collecting Data ...5

1.5.3 Method and Technique of Analyzing Data ...6

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURES, CONCEPTS, AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...8

2.1Review of Literature ...8

2.2Concepts ...11

2.2.1 Pragmatics ...11

2.2.2 Speech Act ...12

2.2.3 Illocutionary Act as Part of Speech Act ...13

2.2.4 Context of Situation ...14

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2.3Theoretical Framework ...14

2.3.1 Classification of Illocutionary Acts ...14

2.3.2 Context of Situation ...17

2.3.3 The Act of Making Utterance ...19

2.3.3.1 Direct Speech Acts ...19

2.3.3.2 Indirect Speech Acts ...19

2.3.3.3 Literal Speech Acts ...20

2.3.3.4 Non – Literal Speech Acts ...20

2.3.3.5 Direct Literal Speech Acts ...21

2.3.3.6 Indirect Literal Speech Acts...21

2.3.3.7 Direct Non – Literal Speech Acts ...21

2.3.3.8 Indirect Non – Literal Speech Acts ...21

CHAPTER III: ANALYSIS OF COMMISSIVE AND EXPRESSIVE ILLOCUTIONARY ACT AND THEIR INTENDED MEANINGS ...23

3.1 The Types of Commissive and Expressive Illocutionary Acts ...23

3.2 Context of Situation&The Intended Meanings ...33

CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSION ...47

4.1 Conclusion ...47 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of The Study

Human and language are two supporting elements that certainly cannot stand without one another. It is clear that by time of human existence, it was the time of the language to happen and use. Language is such an essential feature for human life, in which by this, helps human live socially as the nature that is represented in verbal and non-verbal communication. Through language, human may share ideas and information as intended.

In accordance to the use of the language to support human nature to live socially, it has to deal with pragmatics study that focuses on the usage of the language in society. As proposed by Levinson (1983) pragmatics is the study of those relations between the language and context that are grammaticalized and encoded in the structure of a language. Basically, pragmatics has something to do with meanings relatively to speaker or user of the language, as it is clear that there is an intention at the back of the language uttered either in form of spoken or written.

Oftenly, because of the intention of the speakers in uttering a sentence, or known as speakers’ meaning, there might be more than one meaning conveyed. Speakers also usually perform acts or forces in their utterances. These kinds of performed action are called speech act. According to Austin (1962), speech act is

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the act of making an utterance in which the speakers are performing a certain kind of acts, such as : giving, asking, questioning, promising, offering, etc.

Austin (1962) also classified speech act into 3 levels : (i) locutionary act or the act of saying something, (ii) illocutionary act or an act the speakers intend to do something by producing an utterance, and (iii) perlocutionary act or the act done by the hearers affected by what the speakers have said. Below is the example of the three types of speech acts :

John : “Darling, do you want to go out to the show tonight ?” Laura : “I’m feeling ill.”

John : “That’s ok. You stay there and I’ll make soup.”

The locutionary act in the conversation is what she actually said – “I’m feeling ill”. At the same time, by saying that, Laura was telling John that she does not want to go out and considered as an illocutionary act as it is what a person does (Laura, in particular) in saying something else. Beyond communicating the state of her health and the answer to John’s question, Laura accomplished one more thing through saying I’m feeling ill. She got John to make her some soup, and it is an example of perlocutionary act in which is focused on the response others have to a speech act. Schiffrin (1994) also proposed that speech acts basically concern with what people do with language with the function of it.

Illocutionary act is considered to be the core of speech acts. It is closely related with the speakers’ intention. It is the act of making a statement, offer, promise, etc. This act can be broken down into 5 categories according to Searle (1979) namely assertive, directive, commissive, declarative, and expressive.

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Looking at the explanation about speech act and illocutionary act, it is found very interesting to explore by looking at the complexity meaning conveyed. Therefore, conducting a research that elaborates about this is exciting in which the focus is not only about illocutionary acts, but also to the influence of the context of situation to the meaning.

This study analyzed dialogues in Steel’s novel, The Cottage, with purpose to investigate the types of illocutionary acts used in the novel published in 2002. Many kinds of speech acts are found in the novel, but this study more focuses on two kinds of illocutionary acts, they are commissive and expressive illocutionary acts.

Besides, this study was also purposed to find out how the context of situation supports the intended meaning. It was also considered necessary to point out the response of the hearer after the illocutionary acts were uttered to know how successful the acts were.

1.2. Problems of The Study

Problems in this study could be formulated as follows :

1. What types of commissive and expressive illocutionary acts are used in the novel?

2. What are the intended meanings of each type of commissive and expressive illocutionary acts used in the novel The Cottage, and how the context of situation supported the meaning of each illocutionary acts?

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1.3 Objectives of The Study

1. To identify the types of commissive and expressive illocutionary acts used in The Cottage.

2. To analyze the intended meanings of each type of commissive and expressive illocutionary acts used in the novel The Cottage, and investigate how the context of situation support the meaning of each illocutionary acts.

1.4. Scope of Discussion

This research focused on the identification of the types and intended meanings of commissive and expressive illocutionary acts which are found in the novel The Cottage. Besides, the analysis of how the context of situation in the study was also going to be explained further in relation on how it supports the intended meaning conveyed within the illocutionary acts.

1.5 Research Methods 1.5.1 Data Source

The data as taken from The Cottage by Danielle Steel published in 2002. The story is about Cooper Winslow, a star of the silver screen for decades, who is in for a major surprise. He is broken. And with no major roles coming his way, Coop is faced with the heartbreaking prospect of selling his beloved home of forty years, or at least renting out the gatehouse and part of the main house. A huge blow to Coop, whose debonair attitude allows him to escape reality much of the time. His new tenants, Mark Friedman and Jimmy O'Connor, are busy coping with problems of their own. Mark's wife of sixteen years just walked out, and

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Jimmy recently lost his own wife to a devastating illness.But everything changes when Mark's teenage son and daughter move in. Suddenly, The Cottage is transformed, with music blasting from every corner, teenagers on skateboards crashing into vintage cars, and a never-ending parade of young starlets streaming in and out to visit Coop.

The dialogues in the novel were the population of the data and taken as the sample were the conversations which presented illocutionary acts. The illocutionary acts then analyzed to find out the types, the context of situation involved in, and the intended meaning.

The novel was chosen because it contains many utterances indicating those 5 types of illocutionary acts performed in its dialogues. The dialogues were the population and the sample was taken by scanning those utterances that could be classified as illocutionary acts.

1.5.2 Method and Technique of Collecting Data

Documentation method was used in this study in regards to the data form. The data was taken from documents. Furthermore, there where no respondent or informant involved in this research since the data was taken from the novel. The techniques that used in this study is note taking technique as describe below : 1. Reading all chapter of the novel thoroughly in order to find utterances that

represent commissive and expressive illocutionary acts.

2. Later, after reading the novel and had enough samples of commissive and expressive illocutionary acts within it based on Searle’s theory, the next was

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noting down all of the examples in relation to the problems mentioned. This activity became easier because the page numbers that containing the data have been written.

3. Select all of the data that are considered relevant and classify them to the types of commissive and expressive illocutionary acts based on Searle’s theory.

1.5.3 Method and Technique of Analyzing Data

After the data were collected, it was followed by method and technique of analyzing. The analysis was presented by showing the data in the form of sentences. The utterances which were analyzed were in bold and italic types. Overall, qualitative method was the most suitable method used in describing or analyzing this study. The qualitative method investigated the why and how of decision making, not only what, where, when.

As proposed by Denzin and Lincoln (1994), qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts – that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals’ lives.

The analysis of the data was observed in accordance to the scope of discussion and theoretical framework, and the results were presented by using a descriptive method. Descriptive method means that the results were in the form of description. There were some steps that were followed in analyzing the data : 1. Identify the types of commissive and expressive illocutionary acts within the

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illocutionary acts at the same time while reading the novel. Each time the data found, it was noted down with the page numbers.

2. When the identification of each type of commissive and expressive illocutionary acts in the novel done, the data then classified by its types based on the theory of classification of illocutionary acts by Searle (1979). Then, the intended meanings of each type of illocutionary acts used within the novel were also explained.

3. Then, it was continued by analyzing the theory of context of situation, proposed by Halliday (1989), in affecting the intended meanings in a particular situation was explained.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPTS, AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Literature Review

Pusparini (2010), composed a study entitled “The Analysis of Illocutionary Acts Found in the Pond Scum By Allan Silberberg”. The study was conducted in order to find not only the types of illocutionary acts used in the novel, but also the function of those illocutionary acts based on the context of the situation. The relevancy between Pusparini’s and this study is that both discuss illocutionary acts and the data sources are the same which is a novel. What make this study different from Puparini’s is in the theory that is going to be used. She used the theory of Illocutionary Acts proposed by Bach and Harnish (1979), whereas John Searle’s theory is going to be used to support this study. In addition, the Pusparini analyzed the context of situation using Hyme’s theory, but in this study Halliday’s is going to be used. She made good analysis, gave detail explanation, and presented the data clearly. Therefore this study gave contribution in giving a good example of elaborating theory to be applied in analyzing the data. Widiarta (2013), completed a study entitled illocutionary acts found in Harry Potter and The Goblet of Fire by Joanne Kathleen Rowling. The study was conducted in order to find the types of illocutionary acts found in the novel. Besides, the study also concerns on how the context of situation rewrite the language used by the participants in the novel. The relevancy between Widiarta’s

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to this study is that both focus on classifying utterances into types of illocutionary acts with novel as reference. In addition, Widiarta’s study used theory of speech act by Searle (1979) and theory of context of situation by Halliday (1989), which are similar to this study. In this study, the influence of the context of situation to the intended meaning of the speaker was the core, while in Widiarta’s, she focused on how the context of situation rewrite the language used by the characters in the novel. Widiarta did a great job by explaining the data clearly in accordance to the problem discussed.

Another undergraduate thesis taken as reference is from Widiani (2008). The study discussed about the types of commisives and expressives illocutionary acts occurred in a play, in which make the study is relevant to be reviewed as it focuses in the same. The study also explained about how the context of situation, but in different perspective, which is on how it supports the appearance of commissives and expressives illocutionary acts along with the responses given by the hearer. The data of Widiani’s were collected from a play The Sins of The Motherby Morinelli which is considered to be the difference to this study by which using a novel as the data source. Some of the theories used in the study are different from this study. Widiani used theory of pragmatics, speech acts, illocutionary acts, and context of situation by Hymes (1972), while this study is going to use theory of speech acts by Austin (1962), illocutionary acts by Searle (1979) , and theory of context of situation by Halliday (1989). Widiani was able to describe her answers neatly to the problems proposed which makes this study quite inspirational.

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An article entitled “The construction of Away Messages : A Speech Act Analysis” taken from an international journal “Journal of Computer-mediated Communication 11th volume, issue 4, article 7” counts as reference to this study. The article is written by Nastri, Pena, and Hancock in 2006. “All of the writers were researchers from the department of communication at Cornell University. This article investigated the extent to which the communicative goals were reflected in the language structure of away messages, by examining the speech acts performs through the production of 483 away messages crafted by 44 participants. The messages were also analyzed for the use of non-standard orthography and humor. The results showed that the messages were constructed primarily with assertive, followed by expressive and commissive, but rarely directives, confirming that away messages tend to reflect both informational and entertainment goals. They also took notes that speech acts accomplish different functions simultaneously; they “do things with words” on the illocutionary level and might also participate in the interaction. As such, speech act analysis could be classified at multiple levels of analysis in the computer mediated discourse analysis (CMDA) framework. In the present study, they considered speech acts analysis at the meaning level of CMDA, in that they did not analyze the exchange of messages but rather the qualities of individual messages.

Another article which is included in this study is “The Study about Illocutionary Acts and Sentence Meaning” by Stephen Barker. It was taken from a journal entitled “Mind”, July 2002 edition. In this study, Barker reviews a book entitled “Illocutionary Acts and Sentence Meaning” by William P. Alston. He also

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gives some explanations, opinions and additions about this book. In his journal, Barker gives opinions that the book is very impressive, clear, vigorously argued, admirably structured with the conclusion about the nature of meaning which thought formulated 20 odd years ago have retained their freshness, interest, and relevance for present researchers, not only those working in speech acts theory but also for those denoted to the broader topic of meaning theory. The author’s basic contention is that the sentence meaning is to be explained as illocutionary act potential. This book is divided into parts. The first part covers the nature of illocutionary act and the second covers the theory of sentence – meaning as illocutionary act potential. For general, Barer concludes that Alston is not fundamentally challenge the dominant reference-theoretic approach to meaning. Nevertheless, Alston offers a deeply searching enquiry into the nature of the sentence meaning and illocutionary acts.

2.2 Concept 2.2.1 Pragamatics

Pragmatics is another board approach to discourse : it deals with three concepts ; meaning, context, communication (Schiffrin, 1994 : 190)

The scope of pragmatics is so wide. Pragmatics for the linguistic purpose concerns as the study of meaning in relation to speech situation. In other words, the function of language is related to the social context where the language is operated.

In early 1980, the most common definition of pragmatics were meaning in use or meaning in context (Thomas, 1995 : 1). However these definitions are too

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general although those are accurate enough and perfectly adequate as a starting point. Thomas views that meaning is not something which is inherent in the words alone, nor produced by the speaker alone, nor produced by the hearer alone. Making meaning is a dynamic process, involving the negotiation of meaning between speaker and hearer, the context of utterance (physical, social, and linguistic) and the meaning potential of utterance

While Levinson (1987 : 9), states that pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized or encoded in the structure of language.

2.2.2 Speech Acts

Speech act is a field of study which was firstly introduced by Austin who was well – known as an Oxford philosopher. Austin (1962) conveyed that speech act is the act of making an utterance in which the speaker is performing a certain kind of acts, such as giving advice, asking questions, making promises, making offers, etc. There was a series of analytical connections appeared in the notion of speech act itself, such as what the speaker means, what the sentence (or other linguistic element) uttered means, what the speaker intends, what the hearer understands, and what the rules governing the linguistics elements are. Schmidt and Richards (1985) states that speech act is “an utterance as a functional unit in communication”.

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2.2.3 Illocutionary Acts as A Part of Speech Acts

Illocutionary acts are utterances with some kind of functions in mind. According to Searle (1979), illocutionary acts occur in which the speaker utters a sentence means what he says, but also means something more. For instance the speaker says “I want you to come to the party” by way of requesting hearer to do something. However that was a request made by way of making a statement. When the context theory is introduced to the field of discourse analysis, it needs to be taken to consideration not only the discourse itself, but also the context in which the discourse takes place.

2.2.4 Context of Situation

Halliday (1985) stated that all use of language has a context of situation. An utterance which was uttered in a different context of situation could be interpreted differently. He also stated three elements of context of situation consisting of field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse. Field of discourse refers to the on going activity. Tenor of discourse deals with the social relationship enacted in or by the discourse. Meanwhile, mode is associated with how the conversation happens.

2.3 Theoretical Framework 2.3.1 Speech Act

Austin (1962) conveyed that speech act is the act of making an utterance in which the speaker is performing a certain kind of acts, such as giving advice, asking questions, making promises, making offers, etc. There was a series of analytical connections appeared in the notion of speech act itself, such as what the

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speaker means, what the sentence (or other linguistic element) uttered means, what the speaker intends, what the hearer understands, and what the rules governing the linguistics elements are.

Austin’s theory in speech acts, breaks down speech acts into three levels as follows :

1. Locutionary Act

. This refers to the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference to have a meaning. Similar to what is found in “is there any salt?”. It performs locutionary act of uttering the interrogatory sentence about the presence of salt. 2. Illocutionary Acts

In accordance to theory proposed by Austin, illocutionary act is an act for the performance of which must be made clear to some other person that the act is performed. It is the speaker intention. What is being uttered has a purposed in mind. For example, “is there any salt?” which is intending somebody to hand the speaker the salt. Searle (1979) states there are five types of illocutionary acts ;assertive, directives, commissives, expressive, and declarative.

3. Perlocutionary Acts

Perlocutionary acts are acts attributed to the effect of uttering a sentence to achieve certain effects. In relation to the notion of illocutionary acts, perlocutionary acts is in the notion of consequence or effect such acts have on the action, thoughts, or beliefs, etc of hearer. Taken as the example “is there any salt?” by which further resulting in somebody to hand the salt that categorized as perlocutionary.

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2.3.2 Classification of Illocutionary Acts

The theory that is going to be used to analyze tha data in this study is speech acts theory proposed by Searle, especially the classification of illocutionary acts. According to Searle’s taxonomy of elementary illocutionary acts, there are only five illocutionary points that speakers could attempt to achieve in expressing a propositional content with an illocutionary: assertive, commissive, directive, declarative, and expressive illocutionary point. Each illocutionary act with a force has an illocutionary point which is internal to its being an act with that force. That illocutionary point determines a particular direction of fit between words and things. The illocutionary acts are satisfied when the success of fit are achieved from the appropriate direction of fit. The classification of the speech acts according to Searle (1979) are as follows :

1. Assertive

The point or purpose of the members of the assertive class is to commit the speaker (in varying degrees) to something's being the case, to the truth of the expressed proposition like “it is raining”. All of the members of the assertive class are assessable on the dimension of assessment which includes true and false. In other word they represent some state of affairs. There are nine kinds of acts belong to this category, namely : stating, claiming, hypothesizing, describe, telling, insisting, suggesting, asserting, swearing.

2. Directive

The illocutionary point of these consists in the fact that they attempt (of varying degrees, and hence, more precisely, they determinate of the determinable

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which includes attempting) by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. For instance “please, bring me the salt”. They may be very modest 'attempts' as when the speaker invites you to do it or suggest that you do it, or they may be very fierce attempts as when the speaker insists that you do it. Like requests and commands have the things-to-words direction of fit. There are six kinds of acts belong to this category, such as : ordering, commanding, daring, defying, challenging, commending.

3. Commissive

Commissive then are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker (again in varying degrees) to some future course of action. Searle (1979) proposed that there are two main verbs categorized into this class, they are “promise” and “offers” but there are others that belong to promise group like vow, pledge, etc. the deep structure of commissive acts is the same with the directives acts, like “ I promise to be at home before nine o’clock”. There are four kinds of acts belong to this category, such as : promising, threatening, intending, vowing to do or o refrain from doing something.

4. Expressive

Based on Searle (1979), expressive are those kinds of illocutionary acts that showing what he speaker feel. They express psychological state and can be statement of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy or sorrow. They can be caused by something the speaker does or hearer does, but they are about the speaker’s experience. In using expressive, the speaker makes words fit the word (of feeling).

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There are six kinds of acts belong to this category, such as : thanking, apologizing, congratulating, greetings, wishing, attitudes

5. Declaration

It is the defining characteristic of this class that the successful performance of one of its members brings about the correspondence between the propositional content and reality, successful performance guarantees that the propositional content corresponds to the world: if I successfully perform the act of appointing you chairman, then you are chairman; if I successfully perform the act of nominating you as candidate, then you are a candidate; if I successfully perform the act of declaring a state of war, then war is on; if I successfully perform the act of marrying you, then you are married. Declarations bring about some alternation in the status or condition of the referred-to object or objects solely in virtue of the fact that the declaration has been successfully performed as seen in “I hereby pronounce you man and wife”. This feature of declarations distinguishes them from the other categories. There are six kinds of acts belong to this category, such as : blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing sentence, excommunicating.

2.3.3 Context of Situation

Grudy (2000) stated that in the case of implicature, context helps to determine what is conveyed implicitly but not explicitly stated by the speaker. It means that the meaning of utterance depends on the context, which carries it. In addition, context makes the hearers to attend to how senders’ and receiver’ needs, goals, and want are personalized not just to the conventional meanings of prior

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text but also to particular socially and culturally defined communicative situations (Brown and Yule, 1983).

According to Halliday (1989:12), there are three features of context of situation that will be used in supporting the analysis of the problem about the function of illocutionary act, such as : field, tenor and mode.

1. Field of Discourse

Field of the discourse refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place; what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which the language figures as some essential component.

2. Tenor of Discourse

Tenor of discourse refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statuses and roles; what kinds of role relationship obtain among the participants, including permanent and temporary relationships of one kind or another, both the types of speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue and the whole cluster of socially significant relationships in which they are involved. 3. Mode of Discourse

Mode of discourse refers to what part the language is playing, what it is that the participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation; the symbolic organization of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context including the channel and also the rhetorical mode, what is being achieved by the text in terms of such categories as persuasive, expository, didactic and the like.

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Overall, it could be concluded that a certain of context situation underlying a sentence or an utterance in order to the hearer could get the intended meaning or the message of the utterance. In other words, the context of situation could help the hearer to group and understand the intended meaning which was spoken by the hearer.

2.3.3 The Act of Making Utterance

Based on Linguistic Communication and Speech Acts written by Bach and Harnish in 1979, the act of making an utterance in which the speaker is performing a certain kind of acts, such as : giving advice, asking questions, making promises, making offers, etc, could be uttered in 4 ways, namely : literal speech acts, non literal speech acts, direct speech acts, and indirect speech acts. 2.3.3.1 Direct Speech Acts

Based on the mode, a sentence can be divided into declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentence. Declarative sentence is used to tell something or to inform an information; interrogative sentence is used to ask you something , and imperative sentence is used to give a command, invitations, request or petition.

For example : Rina is driving home What is she doing? Close the door!

Those three sentences are the example of direct speech act in the form of declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentence.

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2.3.3.2 Indirect Speech Acts

Indirect speech act is an act of commanding someone to do something indirectly. This action is done by using imperative or interrogative sentence, therefore the object (who must do the command) does not feel themselves governed. For example, a mother tells her daughter to grab a broom, by asking “Rina, where is the broom?” This sentence shows the example of indirect speech in the form of interrogative sentence which can be functioned as imperative sentence. If there is no direct relationship between a sentence type and an illocutionary force, the speech act is indirect, if there is a direct match, it is a direct speech act.

2.3.3.3 Literal Speech Act

Literal speech act is the act of making an utterance in which the speaker is performing a certain kind of acts, when the meaning of the sentence or utterance is as the same as intended meaning of the speaker. For example : “Rina, please pass me the salt!”

2.3.3.4 Non-Literal Speech Act

Non-literal speech act is the act of making an utterance in which the speaker is performing a certain kind of acts, when the meaning of the sentence or utterance is different from the intended meaning of the speaker. For instance : “You look good on that dress”. This is an example where the meaning of the words is different from what actually meant by the speaker. The speaker actually thinks the object is not good on that dress.

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All of these ways of performing certain kinds of acts in making an utterance can be developed more into four, they are : Direct literal speech act, Indirect literal speech act, Direct non-literal speech acts, and Indirect non-literal speech act.

2.3.3.5 Direct Literal Speech Acts

Direct literal speech act is an act in uttering something in which the mode of speech is the same as the meaning of the words or the sentence when the speaker uttering something. For example : “Give me the broom!”

2.3.3.6 Indirect Literal Speech Acts

Indirect literal speech acts is an act in uttering something which is expressed in the sentence that is incompatible with the mode of speech, but the meanings of sentence is the same as the intended meaning of the speaker. For example : “The floor is dirty”. The sentence is in declarative form bu the intended meaning is to tell the listener to clean the floor.

2.3.3.7 Direct Non-Literal Speech Acts

Direct non-literal speech act is an act in uttering something in which the mode of the sentence is appropriate with the purpose of the speech, but the meaning of the words is different with the intended meaning of the speaker. For instance, “Yeah, you look awesome”. This example shows a direct speech act in which the meaning of the sentence is not the same as the intended meaning of the speaker.

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2.3.3.8 Indirect Non-Literal Speech Acts

Indirect non-literal speech acts an act in uttering something in which the mode of speech or sentence is incompatible with the intended meaning of the speaker. For example : to get the maid clean the floor, the owner of the house could say “what a clean floor it is!”

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