BAHASA INGGRIS UNTUK BIOLOGI DAN

BAHASA INGGRIS UNTUK BIOLOGI

TRISNA AMELIA NUR EKA KUSUMA HINDRASTI

Perpustakaan Nasional: Katalog Dalam Terbitan

Bahasa Inggris untuk Biologi Trisna Amelia Nur Eka Kusuma Hindrasti

Hak cipta dilindungi Undang-Undang. Dilarang mengutip sebagian atau seluruh isi buku ini dengan cara apa pun, termasuk dengan cara penggunaan mesin fotokopi, tanpa ijin sah dari penerbit

ISBN 978-602-6770-07-3

vii, 68 hlm, 17,6 cm X 25 cm Cetakan 1, Oktober 2016

Hak Penerbitan pada UMRAH Press, Tanjungpinang

Kantor: Kampus Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji, Gedung Rektorat Lantai III Jl. Dompak, Tanjungpinang, Provinsi Kepulauan Riau 29111 Telp/Fax : (0771) 7001550 – (0771) 7038999, 4500091 E-mail

: [email protected] / [email protected]

PREFACE

Thank Allah SWT who has given His bless to the writer for finishing the Book entitled “Bahasa Inggris untuk Biologi”. The writer also wish to express his deep and sincere gratitude for those who have guided in completing this book. This book contains concept of biology and the exercise in English language that can help the readers to improve their English skill in biology. There are eight main contents in this book, which are the chemistry of life, an introduction of metabolisms, biotechnology, mechanisms of evolution, classification of living things,reproduction in plant, thermoregulation, and ecology. Hopefully, this book can help the readers to expand their knowledge about English for Biology.

Tanjungpinang, September 2016

Authors

Preface

i Contents

……………………………….

ii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

……………………………….

1 Chapter 2 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

……………………………….

5 Chapter 3 AN INTRODUCTION OF

……………………………….

9 METABOLISMS Chapter 4 BIOTECHNOLOGY

……………………………….

14 Chapter 5 MECHANISMS OF

……………………………….

18 EVOLUTION Chapter 6 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING

……………………………….

22 THINGS Chapter 7 REPRODUCTION IN PLANT

……………………………….

31 Chapter 8 THERMOREGULATION

……………………………….

39 Chapter 9 ECOLOGY

……………………………….

49 Bibliography

……………………………….

61 Glossary

……………………………….

62 Index

……………………………….

Chapter I INTRODUCTION

1. Deskripsi Mata Kuliah

Mata kuliah bahasa inggris untuk biologi dirancang untuk memberi bekal mahasiswa agar dapat menguasai bahasa Inggris dalam menunjang pemahaman ilmu kimia dari literatur atau sumber informasi berbahasa Inggris. Materi perkuliahan mencakup peningkatan literasi dalam memahami naskah saintifik berbahasa inggris. Latihan-latihan yang diberikan berorientasi pada hakikat sains, terutama keterampilan proses sains. Adapun konten materi yang terkandung, di antaranya the chemistry of life, an introduction of metabolisms, biotechnology, mechanisms of evolution, classification of living things,reproduction in plant, thermoregulation, dan ecology. Bahasa inggris digunakan sebagai pengantar perkuliahan. Penilaian diambil dari partisipasi dan keaktifan mahasiswa dalam perkuliahan.

2. Standar Kompetensi

Mahasiswa mampu menerapkan keterampilan proses sains untuk memahami teks saintifik berbahasa inggris.

3. Kompetensi Dasar

a. Mahasiswa mampu memahami teks saintifik berbahasa inggris

b. Mahasiswa mampu menerapkan keterampilan proses sains dengan

pengantar bahasa inggris.

SYLLABUS

Lecturers Bahasa Inggris

Mata Kuliah

Code

SKS Semester

Trisna Amelia, M.Pd. untuk Biologi

PB1116

2 Odd

Nur Eka Kusuma Hindrasti

Description of

English for Biology is English for Specific Purposes ( ESP), English

the Course

for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Professional Purposes (EPP) toilored to the needs of first and second semester undergraduate Biology Education Department at FKIP UMRAH. The aim of this course is to accomplish student with english ability and make then capable in science process skill. The course materials include reading comprehension, structure, speaking , and listening, from the chosen topics related biology and teaching biology.

Objrectives of

1. Answer the questions from the texts related to biology

the Course

topics.

2. Use the biology terms in sentences.

3. Speak English in academic context.

4. Use classroom languages.

5. Write composition

Wee Sourc Time Topic

Objectives

1 An

2 x 50‟ Introduction

1. To get familiar with its objectives of the Syllabu

s to course

course

2. To introduce one sefl in English

outline

2 The

1. Explain the concept of the chemistry of Module

2 x 50‟

Chapte Chemistry Of

life

2. Raising question about the chemistry of r1 Life

life

Explain the structural polysaccharides

4. Communicate the different of the structure chitin and cellulose monomer through pictures and explanations

5. Apply the concept of structural polysaccharides to a operation in hospital

6. Predict a phenomenon

3 An

1. define the concept of metabolisms

Raise question about metabolisms

Chapte

Introduction

3. Explain respiration and photosyntesize

Wee Sourc Time Topic

2 x 50‟ Introduction 2. Design experiment about photosyntesize Chapte Of

1. Ask question about photosyntesize

Module

r2 Metabolisms

3. Contruct a table of data

5 Biotechnolog 1. Define biotechnology

Chapte y

Raising question about biotechnology

3. Define genetic engineering

4. Aski uestion about genetic engineering

6 Biotechnolog 1. Construct hypotheses from the question Module

2 x 50‟

Chapte y

Design a investigation based on

hypotheses

3. Predict about genetic engineering

4. Communicate the results of the

investigation to the poster

7 Mechanisms

1. Define evolution

Chapte Of Evolution

Ask question about evolution

3. Define natural selection

4. Construct a graph based on the data

6. Predict an explanation from the

2 x 50‟ classification

1. raise a question about the concept Module

Chapte of Living

Classification of Living Things;

of r5 Things

classification system in living things;

10 The

2 x 50‟ classification

1. define the system of classification of Module

Chapte of Living

living things;

about r5 Things

Classification of Living Things

2 x 50‟ ation

11 Thermoregul 1. Raise

a question

about Module

thermoregulation;

Chapte

2. Define thermoregulation;

3. Define endothermy and ectothermy;

2 x 50‟ ation

12 Thermoregul 1. Interpret data about thermoregulation; Module

2. Applying

concept

about Chapte

thermoregulation

13 Reproductio 1. Raise a question about reproduction in Module

2. define reproduction;

Wee Sourc Time Topic

Objectives

n In Plant

3. differentiate between vegetative, asexual

and sexual reproduction;

4. explain the parts of a dicot flower and

their functions;

5. present the part of a dicot flower;

6. observe a dicot flower and determine

each part of the flower;

7. state the types of pollination.;

14 Ecology

1. define ecology and describe the major

Module

2 x 50‟

sub-disciplines: behavior, population

Chapte

ecology, community ecology;

2. identify factor that determine geographic distribution;

3. identify biotic and abiotic factor;

15 Ecology

1. define ecosystem;

Module

2 x 50‟

2. define primary producer, primary

Chapte

consumer, secondary consumer, and

omnivory and be able to accurately identify these in a food web;

3. read and interpret a food web diagram

with multiple trophic levels and how these interact using top-down and bottom-up terminology;

4. interpret food chains and food webs, and

be able to locate a food chain within a food web.

2 x 50‟ EXAM

16 FINAL

Tanjungpinang, August 2016 Lecturers

Trisna Amelia, M.Pd. Nur Eka Kusuma Hindrasti, M.Pd.

Chapter II THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE OBJECTIVES

After completing this lesson, you will be able to :

7. Explain the concept of the chemistry of life

8. Raising question about the chemistry of life

9. Explain the structural polysaccharides

10. Communicate the different of the structure chitin and cellulose monomer through pictures and explanations

11. Apply the concept of structural polysaccharides to a operation in hospital

12. Predict a phenomenon

The flower above is from a magnolia, a tree of ancient lineage that is native to Asian and American forests. The magnolia blossom is a sign of the plant's status as a living organism, for flowers contain organs of sexual reproduction, and reproduction is

a key property, as you will learn later. Like all organisms, the magnolia tree in second figure above is living in close association with other organisms, though it is a lone specimen far from its ancestral forest. For example, it depends on beetles to carry pollen from one flower to another, and the beetles, in turn, eat from its flowers. The flowers are adapted to the beetles in several ways: Their bowl shape allows easy access, and their multiple reproductive

organs and tough petals help ensure that some survive the voracious beetles. Such adaptations are the result of evolution, the process of change that has transformed life on Earth from its earliest beginnings to the diversity oforganisms living today. As organs and tough petals help ensure that some survive the voracious beetles. Such adaptations are the result of evolution, the process of change that has transformed life on Earth from its earliest beginnings to the diversity oforganisms living today. As

Although biologists know a great deal about magnolias and other plants, many mysteries remain. For instance, what exactly led to the origin of flowering plants? Posing questions about the living world and seeking science-based answers scientific inquiry are the central activities of biology, the scientific study of life. Biologists' questions can be ambitious. They may ask how a single tiny cen becomes a tree or a dog, how the human mind works, or how the different forms of life in a forest interact. Can you think ofsome questions about living organisms that interest you? When you do, you are already starting to think like a biologist. More than anything else, biology is

a quest, an ongoing inquiry about the nature of life. Perhaps some of your questions relate to health or to societal or environmental issues. Biology is woven into the fabric of our culture more than ever before and can help answer many questions that affect our lives. Research breakthroughs in genetics and cell biology are transforming medicine and agriculture. Neuroscience and evolutionary biology are reshaping psychology and sociology. New models in ecology are helping societies evaluate environmental issues, such as global warming. There has never been a more important time to embark on a study of life. EXERCISE A. Raising Questioning Based to the text, raise a question about the chemistry of life, next find what the answer is? Question

: .............................................................................................................................................. .... Answer

STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDES

Carbohydrates include both sugars and polymers of sugars. The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides, also known as simple sugars. Monosaccharides (from the Greek monos, single, and sacchar, sugar) generally have molecular formulas that are some multiple of the unit CH20.

Glucose (C6HI20 6), the most common monosaccharide, is of central in the chemistry of life. Sugar molecules are generally incorporated as monomers into disaccharides or polysaccharides. There are two polysaccharides, storage polysaccharides and structural polysaccharides

Organisms build strong materials from structural polysaccharides. For example, the polysaccharide called cellulose is a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells. On a global scale, plants produce almost 1014 kg (100 billion tons) of cellulose per year; it is the most abundant organic compound on Earth. Some prokaryotes can digest cellulose, breaking it down into glucose monomers. A cow harbors cellulose digesting prokaryotes in its rumen, the first compartment in its stomach.

The prokaryotes hydrolyze the cellulose of hay and grass and convert the glucose to other nutrients that nourish the cow. Similarly, a termite, which is unable to digest cellulose by itself, has prokaryotes living in its gut that can make a meal of wood. Some fungi can also digest cellulose, thereby helping recycle chemical elements within Earth's ecosystems

Another important structural polysaccharide is chitin, the carbohydrate used by arthropods (insects, spiders, crustaceans, and related animals) to build their exoskeletons. An exoskeleton is a hard case that surrounds the soft parts of an animal. Pure chitin is leathery and flexible, but it becomes hardened when encrusted with calcium carbonate, a salt. Chitin is also found in many fungi, which use this polysaccharide rather than cellulose as the building material for their cell walls. Chitin is similar to cellulose, except that the glucose monomer of chitin has a nitrogen. EXERCISE B Communicate through pictures and explanations As we know from the paragraph above, chitin is similar to cellulose, except that the glucose monomer of chitin has a nitrogen. Know, please communicate to your friend by picture how the different of chitin and cellulose structure is, and than explain them!

The structure of the chitin The structure of the cellulose monomer.

monomer.

EXERCISE C Apply the concept Have you ever get a operation in hospital? Usually you must be surgic for cover the pain. Do you know surgical thread is made from? Know, looking for a knowledge what surgical thread is made from and how is they work!

EXERCISE D Predict Predict, What would happen if a cow were given antibiotics that killed all the prokaryotes in its stomach? Answer: .............................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................

Chapter III AN INTRODUCTION OF METABOLISMS OBJECTIVES

After completing this lesson, you will be able to :

4. define the concept of metabolisms

5. Raise question about metabolisms

6. Explain respiration and photosyntesize

7. Ask question about photosyntesize

8. Design experiment about photosyntesize

9. Contruct a table of data

The living cell is a chemical factory in miniature, where thousands of reactions occur within a microscopic space. Sugars can be converted to amino adds that are linked together into proteins when needed, and proteins are dismantled into amino acids that can be converted to sugars when food is digested. Small molecules are assembled into polymers, which may be hydrolyzed later as the needs of the cell change. In multicellular organisms, many cells export chemical products that are used in other parts of the organism. The process known as cellular respiration drives the cellular economy by extracting the energy stored in sugars and other fuels. Cells apply this energy to perform various types of work, such as the transport of solutes across the plasma membrane. In a more exotic example, cells of the fungus in figure above convert the energy stored in certain organic molecules to light. a process called bioluminescence. (The glow may attract insects that benefit the fungus by dispersing its spores.) Bioluminescence and all other metabolic activities carried out by a cell are precisely coordinated and controlled. In its complexity, its efficiency, its integration, and its responsiveness to subtle changes, the cell is peerless as a chemical factory. The The living cell is a chemical factory in miniature, where thousands of reactions occur within a microscopic space. Sugars can be converted to amino adds that are linked together into proteins when needed, and proteins are dismantled into amino acids that can be converted to sugars when food is digested. Small molecules are assembled into polymers, which may be hydrolyzed later as the needs of the cell change. In multicellular organisms, many cells export chemical products that are used in other parts of the organism. The process known as cellular respiration drives the cellular economy by extracting the energy stored in sugars and other fuels. Cells apply this energy to perform various types of work, such as the transport of solutes across the plasma membrane. In a more exotic example, cells of the fungus in figure above convert the energy stored in certain organic molecules to light. a process called bioluminescence. (The glow may attract insects that benefit the fungus by dispersing its spores.) Bioluminescence and all other metabolic activities carried out by a cell are precisely coordinated and controlled. In its complexity, its efficiency, its integration, and its responsiveness to subtle changes, the cell is peerless as a chemical factory. The

: ...................................................................................................................................... Answer : ......................................................................................................................................

THE NEED FOR ENERGY AUTOTROPHS AND HETEROTROPHS

A chemical reaction either release energy (i.e. exothermic) or uses energy (i.e. is endothermic). Almost all the chemical reactions that occur in living organisms are of the endothermic type, and this explains why organisms need a source of energy if they are to function well and stay alive. In other words, energy is the capacity to do work and the work that must be done in an organisms is to make endothermic reactions take place. In fact, we find that all organisms, both plants and animal, obtain the energy needed for endothermic reactions by oxidizing (or „burning‟) substances such as sugars.this process is called respiration:

A sugar + oxygen  water+carbon dioxide+energy We must now ask where an organism obtains substance like sugars All green plants can synthesize organic subtances from carbon dioxide and water, the presence of chlorophyll enabling them to utilize light energy for this endothermic process, which is called photosynthesis:

Carbon dioxide + water + energy  a sugar + oxygen Green plants, then, are autotrophic, as also are certain blue-green algae which lack chlorophyll. Such plants are chemosynthetic (or chemo-autotrophic) rather than photosynthetic (or photo-autotrophic), because they use energy that is released from simple exothermic chemical reactions. Beggiatoa, for example, is able to oxidize hydrogen sulphide and then use the energy that is released to synthesize sugars:

Step one: hydrogen sulphide + oxygen  water + sulphur + energy Step two: hydrogen + oxygen + carbon dioxide + energy  a sugar + water

Chemosynthesis is, however, relatively rare, and most organisms that lack chlorophyll are heterotrophic, obtaining the organic substance that they need from other organisms.

Heterotrophs cannot synthesize complex organic substances from simple raw materials like carbon dioxide and water. This explains why they are entirely dependent upon other organisms. It is of course animals that we upon plants and those that feed on other animals. However, we must also include among the heterotroph many bacteria,all the Fungi, and even some flowering plants that lack chlorophyll. EXERCISE A Checking of understanding

Finding out baout the meaning of words

Read the passage again and find the words or phrases below. (The numbers in brackets give the paragraphs in which the words can be found). Then try to decide which of the three alternatives can replace the word or phrase without changing the meaning of the passage.

1 occur (1)

2 capacity (1)

(a) are important

(a) size

(b)take place

(b) ability

3 Enabling (2)

4 utilize (2)

(a) allowing (a) depend upon

(b) forcing

(b) react with

5 relatively rare (2)

6 entirely (3)

(a) comparatively unknown (a) compeletely

(b) more typical

(b) largely

Definitions nd naming statements

Complete these definitions and naming statements

is the process by means of which an organism release ... by oxidizing energy-rich compounds

2. An ...

is a reaction which results in the re;ease of energy.

is called energy

4. Chemical reactions which require energy are ...

5. Autotrophism is the process by means of which organisms ...

6. The use of chemical energy to ...

is called chemosynthesis.

7. Heterotrophs are ...

8. Chemo-autotrophic organisms are organism which synthesize complex organic substance using ...

Checking facts and ideas

Try to decide whether you think these statements are true (T) or false (F).

1 most chemical reactions in organism are endothermic. (T/F)

2 respiration takes place in all organisms. (T/F)

3 all autotrophs possess chlorophyll. (T/F)

4 all blue-green algae are chemo-autotrophs. (T/F)

5 Beggiatoa lacks chlorophyll (T/F)

6 some heterotrophs feed upon other heterotrophs. (T/F)

EXERCISE B Asking questioning Look at the picture below! What do you think about the picture? Please make questions about the picture, which there are relation with photosynthesize!

EXERCISE C Design Experiment Design a experiment to know is un-green leaf occur photosynthesize? Answer: ...................................................................................................................................

Chapter IV BIOTECHNOLOGY OBJECTIVES

After completing this lesson, you will be able to :

5. Define biotechnology

6. Raising question about biotechnology

7. Define genetic engineering

8. Aski uestion about genetic engineering

9. Construct hypotheses from the question

10. Design a investigation based on hypotheses

11. Predict about genetic engineering

12. Communicate the results of the investigation to the poster

In 1995, a major scientific milestone was announced: For the first time, researchers had sequenced the entire genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium Haemophilus influenzac. This news electrified the scientific community. Few among them would have dared to dream that a mere 12 years later, genome sequencing would

be under way for more than 2,000 species. By 2007, researchers had completely sequenced hundreds of prokaryotic genomes and dozens of eukaryotic ones, including all 3 billion base pairs ofthe human genome.

Ultimately, these achievements can be attributed to advances in DNA technology-methods of working with and manipulating DNA-that had their roots in the 1970s. A key accomplishment was the invention of techniques for making recombinant DNA, DNA molecules formed when segments of DNA from two

EXERCISE F Predicting Predict why the fruits difficult or hardly found, especially in Indonesia! .............................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................. EXERCISE G Communicating Make a poster to communicate the results of the investigation and analysis

Chapter V MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION OBJECTIVES

After completing this lesson, you will be able to :

7. Define evolution

8. Ask question about evolution

9. Define natural selection

10. Construct a graph based on the data

11. Construct hypotheses from the phenomenon

12. Predict an explanation from the phenomenon

The Onymacris unguicularis beetle lives in the coastal Namib desert ofsouthwestern Africa, a land where fog is common, but virtually no rain falls. To obtain the water it needs to survive, the beetle relies on “a pecullar uhead standing" behavior Tilting head-downward, the beetle faces into the winds that blow fog across the dunes. Droplets of moisture from the fog collect on the beetle's body and run down into its mouth.

This headstander beetle shares many features with the more than 350,000 other beetle species on Earth, including six pairs oflegs, a hard outer surface, and two pairs of wings. But how did there come to be so many variations on the basic beetle theme? The headstander beetle and its many close relatives illustrate three key observations about life: the striking ways in which organisms are suited for life in their environments; the many shared characteristics (unity) of life; and the rich diversity of life. A century and a half ago, Charles Darwin was inspired to develop a scientific explanation for these three broad observations. When he published his hypothesis in

The Origin a Species, Darwin ushered in a scientific revolution-the era of evolutionary biology.

For now, we will define evolution as descent with modification, a phrase Darwin used in proposing that Earth's many species are descendants ofancestral species that were different from the present day species. Evolution can also be defined more narrowly as a change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation. Whether it is defined broadly or narrowly, we can view evolution in two related but different ways: as a pattern and as a process. The pattern of evolutionary change is re· vealed by data from a range of scientific disciplines, including biology, geology, physics, and chemistry. These data are factsthey are observations about the natural world. The process of evolution consists of the mechanisms that produce the observed pattern ofchange. These mechanisms represent natural causes of the natural phenomena we observe. Indeed, the power of evolution as a unifying theory is its ability to explain and connect a vast array of observations about the living world.

EXERCISE A Asking questioning Based to the text, raise a question about the cell, next find what the answer is? Question

: .............................................................................................................................................. Answer : ..............................................................................................................................................

NATURAL SELECTION (A Summary)

 Natural selection is a process in which individuals that have certain heritable characteristics survive and reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals.  Over time, natural selection can increase the match between organisms and

their environment  If an environment changes, or if inviduals move to a new environment, natural

selection may result in adaptation to these new conditions, sometimes giving rise to new species in the process

One subtle but important point is although natural selection occurs through interaction between idividual organisms and their environment, individuals do not evolve. Rather,in the population that evolves over time.

A second key point is that natural selection can amplify or diminish only

heritable traits-traits that ape passed from organisms to their offspring. Though an organism may become modified during its lifetime, and these acquired characteristics may even help the organism in its environment, there is little evidence that such acquired characteristics can be inherited by offspring.

Third, envirometal factors vary from place and over time, a trait that is favorable in one place or time may be useless-or even detrimental- in oter places or times. Natural selection is always opertaig, but which traits are favored depends on environmental.

EXERCISE B Checking of Understanding

1. How does the concept of descent with modification explain both the unity and divertsity of life? ........................................................................................................ .........................................................................................................

2. Describe how overreproduction and heritable variation relate to evolution by natural selection! .......................................................................................................

EXERCISE C Constructing a graph Mosquitoes resistant to the pesticide DDT first appeared in India in 1959, but now are found throughout the world. Graph the data in the table below!

Month Percentage of Mosquitoes Resistant* to DDT

*Mosquitoes werw considered resistant if they were not killed within 1 hour of receiveng a dose of 4% DDT

Source :C.F. Curtis et.al., Selection for and against insecticide resistance and possible methods of inhibiting the evolution of resistance in mosquitoes, Ecological Entomology 3:273-287(1978) Graph:

Chapter VI CASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS OBJECTIVES

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

3. raise a question about the concept Classification of Living Things;

4. analyze the advantageous of classification system in living things;

5. define the system of classification of living things;

6. applying the concept about Classification of Living Things

Look closely at the organism in the figure. Although it resembles a snake, this animal is actually an Australianlegless lizard known as the common scaly-foot (Pygopus lepidopodus). Why isn't the scaly-foot considered a snake? More generally, how do biologists distinguish and categorize the millions of species on Earth? An understanding of evolutionary relationships suggests one way to address these questions: We can decide in which „container‟ to place a species by comparing its traits to those of potential dose relatives. For example, the scaly-foot does not have a fused eyelid, a highly mobile jaw, or a short tail posterior to the anus, three traits of snakes. These and other characteristics suggest that despite a superflcial resemblance, the scaly-foot is not a snake. Furthermore, a survey of the lizards reveals that the scaly-foot is not alone; the legless condition has evolved repeatedly in lizards. Most legless lizards are burrowers or live in grasslands, and like snakes, these species lost their legs over generations as they adapted to their environments. Snakes and lizards are part ofthe continuum oflife extending from the earliest organisms to the Look closely at the organism in the figure. Although it resembles a snake, this animal is actually an Australianlegless lizard known as the common scaly-foot (Pygopus lepidopodus). Why isn't the scaly-foot considered a snake? More generally, how do biologists distinguish and categorize the millions of species on Earth? An understanding of evolutionary relationships suggests one way to address these questions: We can decide in which „container‟ to place a species by comparing its traits to those of potential dose relatives. For example, the scaly-foot does not have a fused eyelid, a highly mobile jaw, or a short tail posterior to the anus, three traits of snakes. These and other characteristics suggest that despite a superflcial resemblance, the scaly-foot is not a snake. Furthermore, a survey of the lizards reveals that the scaly-foot is not alone; the legless condition has evolved repeatedly in lizards. Most legless lizards are burrowers or live in grasslands, and like snakes, these species lost their legs over generations as they adapted to their environments. Snakes and lizards are part ofthe continuum oflife extending from the earliest organisms to the

EXERCISE A Raising Question Based to the text, raise a question about the concept of reproduction in plant, and

the find out what the answer is! Question

Answer : ..............................................................................................................................

Definition of Classification

Classification is the process of grouping things based on similarities. Biologists use classification to organize living things into groups so that organisms are easier to study. The scientific study of how living things are classified is called taxonomy. Living things that are classified together have similar characteristics. Taxonomy is helpful because scientists know a lot about an organism‟s structures and relationships to other organisms. To help scientists classify organisms, they ask themselves these four questions:

1. How many cells does the organism have?

2. Is a nucleus present?

3. How does the organism obtain its energy?

4. How does the organism reproduce? There are four main characteristics that scientists use to classify organisms: 1) number of cells – unicellular or multicellular; 2) presence of nucleus – prokaryote or eukaryote; 3) how energy is obtained – autotroph or heterotroph; 4) mode of reproduction – sexual or asexual (ESCOPE, 2012).

Scientists are always looking for these characteristics or 'observable features' which allow them to group different species together and see how they are related to each other. By comparing the features of different animals they have been able to Scientists are always looking for these characteristics or 'observable features' which allow them to group different species together and see how they are related to each other. By comparing the features of different animals they have been able to

Aristotle

The Greek philosopher Aristotle was the first person known to classify living things scientifically. He only classified things as plants or animals. This classification system lasted for about 2,000 years.

Carolus Linnaeus

The modern classification system was developed in the 1700s by a Swedish scientist named Carolus Linnaeus. He observed many organisms and placed them in groups based on their visible characteristics. Today, there are eight levels of classification (ESCOPE, 2012).

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

1. Domains

Domain is the broadest category of classification is the Domain. There are three Domains in which all organisms are classified; Eukarya, Archaea, Eubacteria.

2. Kingdoms

The second broadest category of classification is the Kingdom. There are six Kingdoms in which all organisms are classified; Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protista,

Eubacteria, Archaebacteria (ESCOPE, 2012).

Each kingdom is further divided into smaller groups called phyla, based on a few features that are shared by some organisms. For example, the arthropod phylum contains all the animals without a backbone that also have jointed legs and a hard covering over their body, such as insects, crustaceans and spiders. A phylum is then subdivided into classes, orders, families, genera, and finally species. In this system of classification the various groups are called taxa (singular: taxon). This chart shows the hierarchical system of classification.

1. Natural classification The hierarchical classification system described above is based on a natural classification system that uses common features shared by organisms. Natural classification is based on two ideas, namely homologous structures and evolutionary relationships

a. Homologous structures

Homologous structures are features of organisms that are similar in structure but may look very different from each other and may be used for different purposes. A horse‟s front leg, the human arm and a bat‟s wing are all homologous structures. They have the same number and arrangement of bones and this means that they probably evolved from a single type of structure that was present in a common ancester millions of years ago.

A fly‟s wing is not homologous with a bat‟s wing. It may look similar and do the same job but it develops from a completely different o rigin. The fly‟s wing has no bones and is not covered by feathers.A bat‟s wing and a fly‟s wing are termed analogous. A bat and a fly would not be grouped together!

With artificial classification you can use any grouping you like. You could put all the animals that fly in the same group. This group would then include birds, bats and many insects. You could put all animals that live in water and have streamlined, fish-like bodies in the same group. This group would then include fish and whales.

Artificial classification systems are also used as the basis for dichotomous keys that biologists use to identify organisms.

EXERCISE E Applying In this activity you will see how an artificial classification works on the basis of using pairs of options; for example, yes/no has/has not in/out. If it is not one thing then it must be the other!

Look at the figure, then try to determine what kind of living things it is by using this dichotomous keys!

1. Is it green or does it have green parts? o Yes - go to 2 o No - go to 3

2. Could be a plant or a protist, or blue-green bacteria. Make sure that the green is really part of the organism, though. An animal might have eaten something green, for example.

o Single-celled? go to 6 o Multicellular? Plantae. Look for cell walls, internal structure. In the

compound microscope you might be able to see chloroplasts.

3. Could be a moneran (bacteria), protist, fungus, or animal. o Single-celled - go to 4

o Multicellular (Look for complex or branching structure, appendages) - go to 5

4. Could be a moneran or a protist. Can you see any detail inside the cell?

o Yes - Protista. You should be able to see at least a nucleus and/or contractile vacuole, and a definite shape. Movement should be present,

using cilia, flagella, or amoeboid motion. Cilia or flagella may be difficult to see. o No - Monera. Should be quite small. May be shaped like short dashes

(rods), small dots (cocci), or curved or spiral shaped. The largest them that is commonly found in freshwater is called Spirillum volutans. It is spiral shaped, and can be nearly a millimeter long. Except for Spirillum, it is very difficult to see Monerans except in a compound microscope with special lighting.

5. Animalia or Fungi. Is it moving? o Yes - Animalia. Movement can be by cilia, flagella, or complex,

involving parts that contract. Structure should be complex. Feeding activity may be obvious.

o No - Fungus. Should be branched, colorless filaments. May have some kind of fruiting body (mushrooms are a fungus, don't forget). Usually

attached to some piece of decaying matter - may form a fuzzy coating on or around an object. In water, some bacterial infections of fish and other animals may be mistaken for a fungus.

6. Most likely Protista. If it consists of long, unbranched greenish filaments with no apparent structure inside, it is blue-green bacteria (sometimes mistakenly called blue-green algae), a Moneran. (David R. Caprette, 2012)

Answer: ...................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................

Binomial system of naming species

Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist who lived from 1707 to 1778, introduced the hierarchical classification system that we have discussed so far. In addition to that, he

Chapter VII REPRODUCTION IN PLANT OBJECTIVES

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

7. Raise a question about reproduction in plant;

8. define reproduction;

9. differentiate between vegetative, asexual and sexual reproduction;

10. explain the parts of a dicot flower and their functions;

11. present the part of a dicot flower;

12. observe a dicot flower and determine each part of the flower;

13. state the types of pollination.;

Male wasps of the species Campsoscolia ciliata often attempt to copulate with the flowers ofthe Mediterranean orchid Ophrys speculum. During this encounter, a sac of pollen becomes glued to the insect's body. Evenhlally frustrated, the wasp flies off and deposits the pollen onto another Ophrys flower that has become the object of his misplaced ardor. Ophrys flowers offer no reward such as nectar to the male wasps, only sexual frustration. S0 what makes the male wasps so enamored of this orchid? The traditional answer has been that the shape of the orchid's largest petal and the frill of orange bristles around it vaguely resemble the female wasp. These visual cues, however, are only partofthe deception: Ophrys orchids also emit chemicals with a scent similar to that produced by sexually receptive female wasps. This orchid and its wasp pollinators are one example of the amazing ways in which angiosperms (flowering plants) reproduce sexually with spatially distant members of their own species. Sex, however, is not their only means of reproduction. Many Male wasps of the species Campsoscolia ciliata often attempt to copulate with the flowers ofthe Mediterranean orchid Ophrys speculum. During this encounter, a sac of pollen becomes glued to the insect's body. Evenhlally frustrated, the wasp flies off and deposits the pollen onto another Ophrys flower that has become the object of his misplaced ardor. Ophrys flowers offer no reward such as nectar to the male wasps, only sexual frustration. S0 what makes the male wasps so enamored of this orchid? The traditional answer has been that the shape of the orchid's largest petal and the frill of orange bristles around it vaguely resemble the female wasp. These visual cues, however, are only partofthe deception: Ophrys orchids also emit chemicals with a scent similar to that produced by sexually receptive female wasps. This orchid and its wasp pollinators are one example of the amazing ways in which angiosperms (flowering plants) reproduce sexually with spatially distant members of their own species. Sex, however, is not their only means of reproduction. Many

EXERCISE A Raising Question Based to the text, raise a question about the concept of reproduction in plant, and

the find out what the answer is! Question

: ................................................................................................... Answer

Reproduction is one of the most important characteristic of all living things. It is necessary for the continuation of the species on earth and also to replace the dead members of the species. The process by which living organisms produce their offsprings for the continuity of the species is called reproduction. Plant reproduction is the production of new individuals or offspring in plants, which can be accomplished by sexual or asexual reproduction.

 Sexual reproduction produces offspring by the fusion of gametes, resulting in

offspring genetically different from the parent or parents.  Asexual reproduction produces new individuals without the fusion of gametes,

genetically identical to the parent plants and each other, except when mutations occur. In seed plants, the offspring can be packaged in a protective seed, which is used as an agent of dispersal.

In this chapter, we only study about sexual reproduction of plant.

1. FLOWER Sexual reproduction in flowering plants centres around the flower. Within a

flower, there are usually structures that produce both male gametes and female gametes. The flowering plants, also called the angiosperms, are seed plants that bear flowers and fruits. Fruits come from flowers. Angiosperms, like all other land plants, have an alternation of sporophyte (diploid) and gametophyte (haploid) generations, but angiosperm gametophytes are very reduced (miniscule).The flower is a shoot with highly modified leafy structures borne at the enlarged tip, the receptacle.

Sterile parts

The non-reproductive structures of a flower are sepals and petals. The outermost ring of parts is formed of sepals; all the sepals together are called the calyx. In lilies and tulips there are three sepals. The sepals are often green and protect the flower in bud, and the petals are usually brightly colored and serve to attract pollinators, The non-reproductive structures of a flower are sepals and petals. The outermost ring of parts is formed of sepals; all the sepals together are called the calyx. In lilies and tulips there are three sepals. The sepals are often green and protect the flower in bud, and the petals are usually brightly colored and serve to attract pollinators,

Fertile parts

The reproductive structures include the stamen and the carpel. Next inwardly are the stamens. Each stamen consists of an anther, made up of four pollen sacs located at the tip, and a narrow stalk-like filament. Because the pollen grains ultimately produce sperm, stamens are associated with male reproductive function. Remove a stamen from the flower. Cut open the anther with a razor or scalpel. When pollen (the male gametophyte) is shed, it usually has two cells, one that divides to produce two sperm, and one which directs the growth of the pollen tube. At the center of the flower is the carpel.

Normally, the carpel has three regions: 1) the ovary, the ovulebearing basal section, 2) the style, the narrow midsection, and 3) the stigma, the sticky pollen- collecting tip. The ovary contains one or more ovules that following pollination and fertilization will form the seeds. In detail, these are parts of an angiosperm flower;

 Receptacle: supports flower stigma sits on top of. It grows 

Petal

pollen tube.

The colorful, often bright part of

Ovary

the flower. They attract pollinators The part of the plant, usually at the and are usually the reason why we

bottom of the flower, that has the buy and enjoy flowers.

seeds inside and turns into the 

Sepal fruit that we eat. The ovary The parts that look like little green

contains ovules. After fetilisation, leaves that cover the outside of a

the ovary swells to produce fruit flower bud to protect the flower

Ovule

before it opens. In seed plants, the female Male Parts

reproductive part that produces 

Stamen the gamete-egg. This is part of the This is the male part of the flower.

ovary that becomes the seeds. It is made up of the filament and anther, it is the pollen producing part of the plant. The number of stamen is usually the same as the number of petals.

 Pollen: male gamete- contains half the genetic information for the production of anew plant.

 Anther This is the part of the stamen that produces and contains pollen. It is usually on top of a long stalk that looks like a fine hair.

 Filament This is the fine hair-like stalk that the anther sits on top of, supports anther to make it accessible to insects

Female Parts 

Pistil This is the female part of the flower. It is made up of the stigma, style, and ovary. Each pistil is constructed of one to many rolled leaflike structures.

 Stigma One of the female parts of the flower. It is the sticky bulb that you see in the center of the flowers, it is the part of the pistil of

a flower which receives the pollen grains

Style Another female part of the flower. This is the long stalk that the

Floral variation

The flowering plants show great variation in floral structure. In particular there is variation in the number of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Their shape and color vary; sometimes one of the floral parts is lacking; often floral parts are fused. Flowers also differ in their symmetry and in production of nectar and scent.

Flowers that are radially symmetrical may be cut longitudinally in many planes to form mirror-image halves. Bilaterally symmetrical flowers may be cut longitudinally in only one plane to form mirror-image halves. EXERCISE B Communicating

BAHASA INGGRIS UNTUK BIOLOGI DAN