Task-based Approach for Selecting the Interactive Learning Tasks

23 Real-word Target tasks Pedagogical Task Rehearsal Activation tasks tasks Enabling skills Language Communicative exercises activities Figure 2.3: A Framework for TBLT Nunan, 2004, p. 25 According to Wills 1996, the framework of the communicative task is gained among pre-task, task cycle, and post task or language focus. Fruther, the framework of task-based learning is described as shown in figure 2.4. Figure 2.4: The Structural Framework of Task-based Learning Pre- task Introduce to topic and task use pictures, posters and questioning and answering techniques Task Cycle Work with and use the target language pedagogical task: Activities like pair work, group work and techniques like information gap activities; maintance of Planning, Practice, Presentation PPP Post Task Select, identify, classify and practice common words and phrases in classroom. And also conduct assessment. 24 The framework of TBL above has an aim to construct a good learning condition obtaining an exposure to target language, expressing meaning and focusing on form only for preventing Willis, 1996. The pre-task aims to motivate and make the students ready to do the tasks. The pre-task is warming-up activity that covers the introduction to topics and tasks. The technigues in pre- task include question and answer techniques, games, review of the last materials, mind-mapping, make a prediction etc. Then the cycle tasks cover planning, practice, and presentation PPP. The cycle tasks porpose the students to practice and to use the target language. The students read the text, discuss it in groups or pairs and present it in the classroom. The techniques in task cycles include information gap activities, mind mapping, summarizing the text and questioning and answering technique. Then the post tasks include grammatical exercises and self-assessment. Through this phase, the students analyse the common words, phrases and sentences and practice using English in grammatical exercises. Also, the students do self-assessment on what they have got. Hence, Willis 1996 provides six common types of task which are listing, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem solving, sharing personal experiences and creative task. The types of the task work out with several techniques in which this combination accommodates the learning styles of the learners. Learning style is defined as traits that refer to how students approach learning task and process information Morrison, Ross, Kalman, Kemp, 2011. In addition, the task-based learning approach uses experiential learning or learning by doing in or outside the classroom. The students have interaction 25 outside the classroom which includes some performances after learning. “By encouraging the students to move out from the class room and into the world, project work helps to bridge the gap between language study and language used” Freeman, 2000. Freeman 2000 organizes the project work into 3 ordered stages which are: 1 students work in class; planning, in collaboration with their teacher, the content and scope of the project, plan strategies, etc. 2 they take place outside classroom; gathering of any necessary information and 3 the students review their project; getting feedback from their teacher. Brown 2001 views procedures and techniques synonymously the same. The procedure names step by step as way to perform the techniques. Referring to Ricard and Roger in Brown 2001 procedures en compass “the actual moment-to- moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method” p. 129. The procedure stands for the reason of operational manner. In these instructional activities, the procedure goes moment- to-moment leading the techniques operationally. The tasks-based learning approach lines the activities and exercises with the role of language rather than the rule of language. Actually, the grammatical elements are needed in communicating in the reason of accuracy. Graves 2000 advices to balance between the activities and exercises because the activities accumulate open-ended capabilities of the students and the exercises empower the controlled capabilities of the students. A controlled capability is obtained to require the students to practice certain grammatical structure in exercise. Then an open-ended capability requires the students to use language in activity. The 26 distinction between exercises and activities creates unbalanced growing. Too many exercises, it denies to develop the ability of communication. Too many activities, it decreases the knowledge about language. The matter of improving students ‟ literacy skills, it needs some techniques to be either used by or taught for the students. To demonstrate certain techniques Brown 2001 porposes the designer to put a high appreciation to the students ‟ individualization of learning. The students have their own techniques in learning especially for teens junior high school students, so the main task for the designer is to provide the varieties of the activities. Brown 2001 provides the taxonomy of controlled techniques or activities which are adapted from Crookes and Chaudron. There are two kinds of techniques which are controlled and free techniques. Nevertheless, the students at certain level, particulary novice-high proficiency, they need controlled techniques Brown, 2001. The controlled techniques go from reading to writing techniqeus, which are reading aloud, checking providing feedback as an activity, question-answer, display, drill, translation, dictation, copying, identification, recognition, reviewing, testing meaningful drill information exchange. In sum, the writer uses TBL Framework of Wiills 2006 to develop the instructional activities. The types of task which are used are listing, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem sloving and sharing personal experiences. The used techniques are the controlled techniques by Brown 2001. Thus, the activities are manipulated following the preferences of the students occurring on the result of needs‟ survey characteristic indentification. Because of task as a center of 27 teaching and learning method and techniques, the concern is to dig out the students‟ reading and writing skiils. Also, the instructional activities are designed to provide many chances for students to practice either using English or maintaining the form and usage of the language.

6. The Nature of Reading Materials for Improving Reading Skills

Reading is a receptive skill which means that to read is the process of involving response to the text rather than producing it Spratt, Pulverness, Williams, 2005. Thus, reading materials must be authentic, as Graves 2000 states that authentic materials are important to improve the communication ability. The list of authentic reading materials may include newspaper, letters personal or formal, booklets, leaflets, advertisement, labels on jars, tins and packets, magazine, the telephone directory, train timetable, and so on. Reading materials indicates improving reading skill and linguistic components. Like McDonough and Shaw 2003 states that to develop reading skill moved from the „text as object‟ view point See figure 2.4 to the „text as a process‟ see figure 2.5 p. 92. Thus, this transforming view points regards the close relationship between text and reader. The readers are not receipients who bring nothing to the text, yet they can negotiate the meaning within the text. Reading is creative process that is far above mere perception of what is written. There are two skills of reading. They are “to locate specific information in the text and skim the extract general from it” McDonough Shaw, 2003, p. 95. Scanning and skimming can be supplementary strategies for improve those skills above. 28 Writer Language Reader Figure 2.5: Text as an Objectives View Point McDonough Shaw, 2003 Readers Background knowledge, Previous knowledge, General intelligence Text Writer Figure 2.6: Text as Process Viewpoint McDonough Shaw, 2003 In addition, Nunan 1989 promotes the kinds of respond to text or authentic text in two categories of activity which are non-linguistic and linguistic responses to the text reading materials. The non-linguistic responses to text includes ordering a sequence of picture, comparing texts and pictures, matching, using ilustrations, completing a document, mapping it out, using the information in the text, and jigsaw reading. Then the linguistic responses to the text cover reorganizing the information: reordering events and using grids, comparing several texts, completing a document, questions-types, study skills: summarizing and study skills: note-taking Nunan, 1989. According to Williams in McDonough and Shaw 2003, reading is divided into three classifications which are getting general information from the text, getting specific information from the text, and reading for pleasure or for interest. Nunan 1989 reviews three techniques to promote such stimuli improving students reading skills, those are sentisizing inference: through context and word formation, improving reading speed, and from skimming to scanning Idea Idea 29 predicting, previewing, anticipation, skimming, and scanning. Similary, Brown 2001 provides several strategies for reading comprehension, some of them are using silent reading techniques, skimming the text for main ideas, scanning the text for spesific information, using semantic mapping or clustering, etc. Brown 2001 spesifically devides classroom reading performances into oral reading, silent reading, intentsive reading and extensive reading. According to McDonough 2003, the instructional reading materials are best to improve reading skills rather than to teach about vocabularies and grammar. Hence, the linguistic aspects grammar and vocabularies are important in improving literacy skill especially for writing because of demanding perfection grammatical form in writing Brown, 2001, yet “if we force too much grammar focus on begining level learners, we run the risk of blocking their acquisition of fluency” Brown, 2001, p. 364. Brown 2001 also promotes appropriate grammar-focusing techniques which are embedded in the meaningful and communicative context. It contributes positively to the communicative goal and promotes accuracy within fluency. Using grammar-focusing techniques, it motivates the students and does not overhelm the students with linguistic terminology.

7. The Nature of Writing Materials for Improving Writing Skills

Writing is a productive skill that means to involve producing language rather than receiving it Spratt, Pulverness, Williams, 2005. Writing is divided into two types by White in McDonough and Shaw 2003. They are instructional and personal writings. The instructional writings are business correspondence,