Kemp’s Instructional Design Model 1977

11 Figure 2.1: Diagram of Kemp’s 1977 IDM The eight steps are explained in details as follows: Step 1 : Identifying Goal , Topics, and General Purposes An instructional design plan starts with recognizing the broad goal of the school system or institution. A school is developed to serve a goal. The school has the goal based on three conderations which are the societies, students and subject areas Kemp, 1977. According to Kemp 1977, to identify the goal, the planner should consider either the changes of the stude nts‟ needs and interests or the changes of the societies. Kemp 1977 states that in curriculum of the course “… topics are choosen for study, for each of which the teacher explicitly express the general purposes ” p. 13. The major topics or unit headings are decided as scopes of the course or program. The topics are usually sequenced according to a logical organization, R evi se Goal, Topics, and General Purposes Support Services Learning Objectives Pre- Assessment Students‟ Characteristi cs Evaluation TeachingLea rning Activities, Resources Subject Contents 12 most often from simple to complex and concrete to more abstract. It needs also to consider how soon the course must be ready. The sequencing of the topics happens through three methods; learning – related sequencing, word – related sequencing and concept-related sequencing Sadler, 2006. For learning – related sequencing, the arrangement is based on the students‟ prespective on the difficulties, uninterested or interested, unfamiliar or familiar, etc. Sadler, 2006. Kemp 1977 states that to arrange the topics in logical order, it helps the students to learn more structured and are easy to acquire the materials. Furthermore, the planner selects several objectives to accomplish one broad, general purpose, just like a single topic serves more than one general purposes. In other words, the planner identifies the objectives from the goal as spesific learning outcomes. Step 2 : Identifying Students’ Characteristic Considering students‟ characteristics in instructional design is a way to respect and recognize the students individually. Personally, the students have different capacities, needs, and interests that need to be established in the process of design as a way to serve those differences. According to Kemp 1977, there are several factors which diverge the student s‟ characteristics which are the academic factors academic background, social backgrounds age and socioeconomic situation, learner s‟ learning conditions, and the learning styles. The learning conditions refer to groups of factors that e ffect a person‟s ability to concentrate, absorb, and retain information. The learning styles stand for certain ways of learning. By indentifying the students ‟ characteristics, the planner decides 13 topics and a level at which topics are introduced, specfies learning objectives and selects learning activities Kemp, 1977. Step 3 : Specifying Learning Objectives “Learning requires active effort by the learners” Kemp, 1977, p. 23. To promote learning the objectives are writen in activities. Kemp 1977 advices the learning objectives are measureable to recognize what students will learn and assessable later. The learning objectives are divided into three domains; cognitive domain, psychomotor domain, and affective domain Kemp, 1977. Nevertheless, the domains are correlating in two main ways. “First, a single objective can involve learning in two or more domains ” Kemp, 1977, p. 27. “Second, attitudinal development may precede successful learning in the other domains ” Kemp, 1977, p. 28. In other words, “an objective may require the learner gains competence in more than a single element of knowledge or skill” Kemp, 1977, p. 30. The most preferable domain is cognitive domain which “… includes objectives concerning knowledge, or information, thinking-naming, recognizing, predicting and so on ” Kemp, 1977, p. 24. Step 4 : Listing Subject Contents To list subject contents the planners need to consider students‟ learning experiences and students‟ needs. The subject contents aim to empower the formulation of learning objectives. In other words, the learning objectives are what you want the subject contents to do. The subject contents are organized into specific knowledge facts and information, skills procedural, conditional and requirements occurred, and attitudinal factors of every unit Kemp, 1977. Graves 14 2000 clarifies also that “you need to make choices based on what you want your students to learn according to your goals and objectives …” p.156. Step 5 : Developing Pre- assessment Knowing the students‟ characteristics, it is very important to maintain the plan for activities through pre-assessment. The pre-assessment itself helps the planner to plan activities for the students and ensure that the students follow the activities efficiently. Step 6 : Selecting Learning Activities and Resources The planner is obligated to find the most effective and efficient methods to determine what should be done by the students. The method should walk in a same path with the objectives and the contents. There are three methods or patterns of teaching and learning; presentation to a group, individualized learning, and teacher-students interaction Kemp, 1977. Another important part is to select supporting materials . “These resources including printed materials of many kinds, audiovisual media, and other items for group and invidual uses”Kemp, 1977, p. 73. Currently, the instructional media have been developed for the reason of efficient learning. The students must see a place, function and relationship than just hear and read. There are three forms of media which are “visual forms, audio form, and audiovisual form” Kemp, 1977, p. 77. 15 Step 7 : Coordinating Support Services At this step, the planner considers funds, facilities, equipments and personnel time to finish the whole process of instructional design. Kemp 1977 states that thinking about the funds or facilities limits the program severely. Step 8 : Evaluation An evaluation is a playoff stage of instructional design by Kemp 1977. It stands for the self-evaluation from the teachers or experts to determine the suitability of the learning objectives, subject contents, learning method, and learning media Kemp, 1977. Furthermore, the self-evaluation formative evaluation gives chance to determine any weakness in the design product which needs to be improved for the final product.

2. Yalden

’s Language Program Development Yalden‟s 1987 declares organized and structured communicative syllabus. According to Yalden 1987 there are eight stages for English progressive development as follows. Figure 2.2: Yalden’s 1987 Language Program Development Stages The eight stages are explained in details as follows. Needs Survey Description of Purpose Selection Development of Syllabus Type Production of a Proto- syllabus Production of a Pedagogical Syllabus Developmental and Implementation of Classroom Procedures Evaluation 16 Stages 1: Needs Survey Yalden 1987 defines needs survey as “two- pronged: it entails carrying out a survey of the communicative needs and learners for whom the program is being prepared as well as a survey the physical resources at hand” p. 88. To conduct the needs survey, the designers identify the students ‟ purposes in learning the target language and the students ‟ needs. According to Yalden 1987 the needs survey gathers the general information about the communication requirements, personal needs, motivations, and the students ‟ characteristics. The survey is done through investigating student s‟ learning partners which are the teachers and friends in order to get the exact information about the student s‟ needs Yalden, 1987. Stage 2 : Description of Purpose At this second step, the designers clarify the purpose of the language program by which the sources are the gathered data from the needs survey. Stage 3 : Selection of Syllabus Type After clarifying the general purpose of the language program, the third step is to choice the syllabus type. Stage 4 : Production of Proto – syllabus The next step is the preparation of the proto-syllabus. The syllabus designers list the contents for preparation of the syllabus spesification. Stage 5 : Production of a Pedagogical Syllabus At this fifth step, the designers produce a pedagogical syllabus Yalden, 1987. 17 Stage 6 : Development and Implementation of Classroom Procedures At this stage, the design process runs through three procedures which are to select the types of the exercise and to teach the techniques, to prepare the lesson plans and to prepare the weekly schedules. Stage 7 : Evaluation At this stage, all components of instruction including the students, program, and teachers are being evaluated. Stage 8 : Recycling Stage There are three procedures in recycling stage. They are to fit the goal and student s‟ performances, reassess the contents, and revise the materials and teaching approaches.

3. Writer’s Instructional Design Model

In order to produce a balanced approach, the writer combines two instructional design ID, two of which are Kemp ‟s 1997 and Yalden‟s 1987 ID. Depending on the situation, one model is used for an entire process of