19 At the next four stages, the writer develops the design product. The four
stages are to specify learning objectives, to list subject contents and to select
learning activities and resources Kemp, 1977. According to Kemp 1977, to
sequence the learning objectives, the planners are advised to use the taxonomy bloom. There are three domains of learning objectives which are the cognitive,
physcomotoric, and affective domain. In this case, the writer develops the cognitive domain to cover other domains which are physcomotoric and affective.
Furthermore, the contents are listed, and sequenced from easy to difficult level. To design the learning activities and resources, the writer uses
Willis‟ 1996 task- based learning framework as an approach to develop instructional activities and
authentic pictures as instructional media. The last two stages are
Kemps‟ 1977 evaluation stage and Yalden‟s 1987 recycling stage. To evaluate the design product, the writer combines
Kemp ‟s 1977 evaluation and Yalden‟s 1987 evaluation stage. The writer uses
formative evaluation Kemp, 1977 and assesses the design product Yalden, 1987. Kemp 1977 insists assessing the suitability of the objectives, subject
contents, learning methods, and materials. Similary, Yalden 1987 states that the evaluation has two aspects:
First, one would wish to evaluate ..... ; next the teaching as well as the over-all design of the course should be assessed. Finally, there is the
recycling stage in which the fit between goals set and the final performance of the learners is determined p. 96.
20
4. Contextual Materials for Designing the Relevant Materials
Contextual materials are used to promote contextual language learning, especially language as a foreign language. The contextual learning is a
constructivist approach to attaint classroom activities with real world activities. According to Brown as cited in Imel 2000, constructivist approach helps the
students to construct meaning through interacting with and interprating their enviroment. Furthermore, Imel 2000 states that a meaningful learning is coupled
with the students‟ life experiences and the contexts which is contructed by the
students. According to Gebhard in Oura 2006, to use authentic materials, it is a
way to contextualize language learning. The advantages of using authentic materials in learning are found by Melvin and Stout as cited in Oura 2006 that:
overall increased motivation to learn in students, ... As students gained more confidence working directly with authentic materials, they also
reported that an increased understanding of the practical benefits of being able to use the language in real word scenario. Students commented that
they need outside classroom and tobe learning about cultures beyond their own p. 69.
In other words, the authentic materials promote the contextual learning for the students to direct the relationship between languages occurred in the classroom
and outside the classroom Brinton as cited in Oura, 2006. According to Borko and Putnam in Imel 2000, the contextual learning has some prespectives which
are the situated cognition, social cognition, and distributed cognition. The prespectives are explained by Imel 2000 as folows:
Situated cognition. Both the physical and social context in which an activity takes place are an integral part of learning that occurs between
these contexts. A relationship exsist between the knowledge in the mind of
21 an individual and the situations in which it is used. ... Social cognition.
Learning is more than just individual construction of knowledge. Interaction with others in learners‟ social environment are major factor
influencing what is learned and how learning takes place. .... Distributed cognition. Related to both the situated and social nature of cognition is the
idea that is also distributed. Inviduals often engage in collaborative learning activities and draw on resources beyond themselves in their
learning. p. 12
Futhermore, creating a bridge between the real word and the classroom opportunities using authentic materials, it addresses the transformation of the real-
world tasks target tasks into pedagogical tasks rehearsal tasks to activation tasks Nunan, 2004. For example the students are able to find a job properly the
target task. They are asked to find some job vacancies in newspaper and to share with their friends pedagogical to rehearsal task. The students make also some
orders, suggestions, arguments, etc. to their friends about the job pedagogical to activation task.
5. Task-based Approach for Selecting the Interactive Learning Tasks
Activities, Techniques or Procedures and Exercises
Task-based approach is an acknowledgement of exposure, use and motivation for communicative purpose Willis, 1996. The motivation to learn a
target language works out on a lot of exposures to language used in a classroom. According to Brown 2001 task-based uses task as a methodological focus. The
Tasks as center of learning are defined as “activities where the target language is
used by the learner for a communicative purpose goal in order to achieve an outcome” Willis, 1996, p. 23. When the students perform a task, they demand
meaningful interaction in using language meaningfully.
22 Brown 2001 differentiates tasks from techniques which are the same in
some ways but it is different. The task includes series of techniques in it, in which it takes communicative goal. The techniques are specific tasks manifested in the
classroom which is consistent with method Brown, 2001, p. 14
.
The communicative goal retains a specific communicative competence. Brown 2001
states that: given communicative competence is the goal of language
classroom, … Communicative goals are best achieved by giving due to attention to
language use and not just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy, to authentic language and contexts, and
to students‟ eventually need to apply classroom learning to previously unrehearsed context in the rea
l world” p.69
The communicative tasks are divided into the target task and pedagogical tasks Brown, 2001. He maintains the target task as series of techniques that the
students must accomplish beyond the classroom and the pedagogical tasks which form those that occur in the classroom Brown, 2001. The pedagogical tasks are
designed ultimately to teach the students to perform the target task. Besides, “in
the framework, enabling skills are of two kinds: language exercises and communicative activities
” Kummaravadivelu cited in Nunan, 2004. In addition, according to Nunan 2004, to create learning opportunities in the classroom, it is
important to transfrom the real-word task or target task into pedagogical task. Referring to Larsen and Freeman in Nunan 2004 reveals the pedagogical tasks
relating form, meaning, and use. Nunan 2004 captures a framework to Task- based Language Teaching TBLT as shown in figure 2.3.
