Other variants Description of the language situation

Finally, there are some differences in lexicon between Indonesian and Jambi Malay. I found that Downstream Jambi Malay appears to be 80–85 lexically similar to SI, based on a limited data corpus. Many of the lexical variations from Indonesian may be due to borrowings from Javanese. For example, [dulu ʁ] saudara ‘familykin’, [aŋop] kuap ‘yawn’, [kanti] kawan ‘friend’, and [deweʔ] sendiri ‘oneself’ all seem to originate from Javanese. Other differences seem limited to Sumatra, such as [k əɲoʔ] bukan ‘not’. For an example of the Jambi Malay language, please see appendix I, which is a copy of a newspaper column written in Jambi Malay. 18 Refer also to texts given as appendices. In terms of the usage of Jambi Malay, some preliminary observations can be discussed here. Jambi Malay takes on the Low L function in Ferguson’s model 1959 discussed earlier. It is not formally taught in schools, and speaking it at all in classrooms is discouraged. Because there is no standard orthography, there are no books written in Jambi Malay. However, there are a few books written about the Jambi Malay language and culture, and not all are linguistic in nature see chapter 2.4. In these, there can be found short passages of JM, particularly passages having to do with cultural ceremonies. And as mentioned above, a newspaper column in JM once existed in one of the local newspapers, Jambi Ekspres, entitled “Wak Juge”, although the column is apparently no longer printed. A substantial number of cassette tapes with folk songs in Jambi Malay can be found in Jambi City shops. Jambi Malay is seldom heard in Jambi City, with the exception of “Pasar Angso Duo”, the main fresh market directly on the riverfront, where there are many Jambi Malay sellers and buyers. Based on observation, Jambi Malay is primarily spoken in the home, among friends and neighbors who are also Jambi Malay, in the workplace if the workplace is located in a Jambi Malay community and the interlocutors are JMs, and during ceremonies where majority Jambi Malay people are present. It is rarely spoken with outsiders; most prefer to use Indonesian if they know it, or Jambi Indonesian. Nearly all Jambi Malays can understand and speak JM, though there are some who have relocated to the city who claim that their JM is no longer very good, and there are some who worry that the younger generation will not master it in the near future. At first glance, attitudes towards JM by Jambi Malays are fairly positive, in that Jambi Malays have proudly discussed their language and taught it to foreigners on occasion. It is treated with high regard as the keeper of tradition and ceremony. Yet, inasmuch as Jambi Malays strive to advance their education or position in society, JM is generally not seen as a conduit for advancement.

1.3.4 Other variants

The recent rise of English in importance for world communication has also been seen to some degree in Jambi. There are numerous courses offered in English, both through private instruction and through the public education system beginning with junior high school level and above. Many people claimed they would like to learn English, or improve their English. English is especially common in domains concerning technology and computers, and English loan words are seen frequently in these areas, as well as in science, math, and other “technologies”. However, in Jambi those who have adequate fluency in English are relatively few; even fewer among ethnic Jambi Malays. English language influence outside of the classroom or basic greetings for foreigners is not very great. Thus, English is not at the forefront of any discussion about Jambi Malay language use and attitudes. The influence of the Jakarta dialect on Indonesian is currently evident in many places throughout Jambi Province, in all likelihood a result of contact with it through regular exposure to Jakarta dialect speakers and the media. Two prominent Jakarta dialect features which are commonly heard in Jambi are the use of the affix -in in place of -kan or -i or possibly zero, and the presence of [ ə] in closed final syllables in some words where a is found in SI. For example, segar ‘fresh’ is [s əgər] in Jakarta-like speech. Use of Jakartanisms in speech is considered prestigious among those in Jambi City, as well as those in rural communities. Especially for those who are educated and have a high status in society, using Indonesian without borrowings from the Jakarta dialect seems the exception rather than the rule. Further research would be necessary to determine how the Jakarta dialect has impacted the Jambi Malay language. Arabic has been spoken in certain domains i.e. prayers, religious instruction, cultural ceremonies in Jambi for centuries. Basic Arabic greetings and phrases are regularly heard in Jambi. It is highly 18 It must be noted that Jambi Malay orthography has not been standardized. prestigious, and many Jambi Malays undertake formal study of the Arabic language. The use of Arabic, however, does not appear to extend beyond the domains and expressions mentioned. Historically, the use of Javanese among Jambi Malays, particularly in the royal court, was considered prestigious Watson Andaya 1993. However, aside from Javanese borrowings into the Jambi Malay language, any widespread practice of speaking Javanese among Jambi Malays seems to have basically disappeared.

1.3.5 Diglossia and language maintenance and shift in Jambi