Richards and Rodgers 1986:76 state that the range of exercise types and activities compatible with a communicative approach is unlimited, as long as the exercises
enable learners to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum, engage learners in communication, and require the use of such communicative processes as
information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction. Littlewood 1981, as cited by Richards and Rodgers 1986: 76 distinguishes
two kinds of communicative activities: functional communication activities and social interaction activities. In functional communication activities, the students are
placed in a situation where they must perform a task by communicating as best as they can, with whatever resources are available. In social interaction activities, the
students take part in real communications that include social contexts.
3. Teaching Speaking a. Nature of Speaking and Oral Interaction
Discussing the nature of spoken language cannot be separated from distinguishing between spoken and written language first. According to Brown and
Yule 1983, as cited by Nunan 1989:26, written language is characterized by well- formed sentences which are integrated into highly structured paragraphs, while
spoken language consists of short, often fragmentary utterances, in a range of pronunciations. They also add that in spoken language there is often a great deal of
repetition and overlap between one speaker and another, and speakers frequently use 14
non-specific references. They suggest that teachers concerned with teaching the spoken language must confront some types of questions. The teachers must figure out
what the appropriate form of spoken language to teach is and what a reasonable model, from the point of view of pronunciation, is. They also have to answer the
questions such as how important pronunciation is; whether pronunciation is more important than teaching; if it is, what is the reason; whether it is all right, from the
point of view of structures taught, to teach the spoken language as if it were exactly like the written language, but with a few ‘spoken expressions’ thrown in; whether it is
appropriate to teach the same structures to all foreign language students, no matter what their age is or their intentions in learning the spoken language; whether those
structures described in standard grammars are the structures which our students should be expected to produce when they speak in English; and how it is possible to
give the students any sort of meaningful practice in producing spoken English. Brown and Yule, as cited by Nunan 1989:27, also draw a useful distinction
between two basic language functions. They are the transactional function, which is mainly concerned with the transfer of information, and the interactional function, in
which the main purpose of speech is the maintenance of social relationships. Nunan also makes the distinction between monologue and dialogue. He states that the
teachers should not generalize the ability of interacting with others and the ability of making good oral presentations. The second skill is a skill that generally has to be
learned and practiced. 15
