Theoretical Description REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

14 b. Plural Inflectional The plural of English nouns can be shown by adding –s or –es to the singular form of noun Frank, 1972. The examples are boy becomes boys and box becomes boxes. c. Possessive Inflectional The singular form of noun can be changed into possessive form by adding the „s. The examples of this kind of form are the man’s hat, the boy’s ball , and the girl’s shoes. d. Derivational Nouns Frank 1972 declares that the parts of speech which have the derivational forms are only nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They may also be the part-of-speech indicators. In addition, Curme 1947: 12 argues that from all those forms of nouns, derivative nouns are similar to compound nouns. It is because the derivative nouns are formed by adding a suffix to a noun, or an adjective, or a verb. The examples of those suffixes are –ness, -ship, -ess, -ing, -er, -dom, and –th. Moreover, other endings like –y, -kin, -ette, -ie, -ling, and –lett also can be attached to adjective or noun to make derivative nouns. The examples of those kinds of nouns can be seen in the table below. Table 2.1: Derivational Nouns NO EXAMPLES 1 Skinship 2 Awareness 3 Boredom 4 Warmth 5 Heiress 15 From the table, we can see that the suffixes make the noun, verb, and adjective become a noun. The examples from a noun to become a noun are heiress and skinship. Other example is boredom which is from the verb bore. Meanwhile, warmth and awareness are examples of nouns which are derived from adjectives warm and aware. Even though derivative nouns are similar to compound nouns, there is also a clear difference between those two. For compound, there should be two or more lexemes that are combined and formed as a lexical. As for derivation, it does not need two lexemes to get the affix. 4. Compound Noun In this section, the researcher is going to discuss compound nouns as one unity. Katamba 1993: 304 confirms that compounds in English belong to the word-classes noun, verb, or adjective. Since this paper is going to analyze the compound nouns, the other types of compounds will not be discussed further. A compound noun can contain a noun followed by another noun, an adjective also followed by a noun, and a preposition followed by a noun Katamba, 1993, p. 305. Moreover, O‟Grady et al 1997: 152 state that a compound noun may be formed from a noun and a noun, an adjective and a noun, a preposition and a noun, and a verb and a noun. The explanation of a compound noun from those two experts can be seen in the following table. Table 2.2: Lexical Items Which Form Compound Nouns Lexical Items Which Form Compound Nouns Example 1 Example 2 Noun and Noun Fire engine pencil case Adjective and Noun High court green house 16 Preposition and Noun Undergraduate after thought Verb and Noun Push button jump suit From the table, it can be seen that the lexical items noun, adjective, preposition, and verb are followed by a noun. In most compounds, the rightmost morpheme will determine the category of the entire word. That is why the rightmost component in a compound noun is also a noun. There are two types of compound nouns according to O‟Grady et al 1997. The first type is endocentric. It means that the rightmost component of the compound shows the general meaning of the word. Therefore, fast food is a type of food; bedroom is a type of room, and so on. Here are the examples of endocentric compounds. Table 2.3: Endocentric Compounds Examples Meaning Steamboat A boat powered by steam Airplane A conveyance that travels through the air Air hose A hose that carries air Air field A field where airplanes land Fire truck A vehicle used to put out fires Fire drill A practice in the event of fire Dog food Food for dog Bath tub A place in which to bathe Bath towel A towel used after bathing Schoolboy A boy who studies at school Teapot A pot for tea Bookcase A case for book O‟Grady et al, 1997, p. 155 The table shows that the meanings of the compounds are related to the meanings of the rightmost morphemes. For example a teapot is a kind of pot and a bath towel is a kind of towel. Endocentric compounds are the most common 17 compounds in English Bauer, 1983; Katamba, 1993; Plag, 2003; Quirk et al, 1985. However, there are also compounds, the meanings of which do not follow the meanings of their parts like the endocentric compounds do. For instance, green bottle is not the type of bottle which is green but it is a fly of the genus lucilia. The followings are the examples of exocentric compounds. These compounds are also called headless compounds Katamba, 1993. Table 2.4: Exocentric Compounds Examples Meaning Maple Leafs Toronto‟s NHL hockey team Sabre tooths Extinct species of tiger Bigfoots Members of an extinct tiger species Walkman A type of portable audio cassette player Blackberry A brand of a smart phone Broadway A stage for drama musical in America It can be seen from the table that the meaning of an exocentric compound is not related to the meaning of the rightmost morpheme. It has totally different meaning from the meaning of its morpheme. Therefore, Bigfoot is not a type of foot; blackberry is not a type of berry, and so on. Katamba 1993 mentions more types of compounds. Besides exocentric and endocentric compound, there is a verbal compound. It is a part of endocentric compounds. The following are the characteristics of a verbal compound: a. A complex head adjective or noun, which is derived from a verb; b. The nonhead constituent is interpreted as a syntactic argument of the deverbal noun or adjective head; c. The 0-role of the nonhead is that of agent and patient; d. The meaning of the compound is transparent. Katamba, 1993, p.308 18 The followings are the examples of verbal compounds which act as a noun: Table 2.5: Verbal Compounds Noun-verb-er Noun-verb-ing Moneylender Bear-baiting Gamekeeper Hay-making Shoemaker Brick-laying Bookseller Sheep-shearing These verbal compounds are also called synthetic compounds according to Spencer 1991, p.309. The heads of these compounds are derived by affixation from a verb. For instance moneylender has lender as the head of the compound. lender comes from the verb lend which is combined by an affix –er. Besides those types of compounds mentioned above, there is one more type of compound called left-headed compound. Just like the name, the head of the compound is on the leftmost lexeme of the compound. The examples of left- headed compound are passer-by, father-in-law, and nationwide. The spellings of the compound nouns are all different. There are three forms of spelling according to Quirk et al 1985. They are solid, hyphenated, and open. The examples of those forms are flower pot, flower-pot, and flowerpot. There is no definite rule to decide the spelling of compounds. However, Quirk et al 1985 argue that hyphenation is more common in British English than in American English. 5. Compounds VS Phrases Some people may be confused to differentiate between compounds and phrases. Because of that, Kingdon 1958: 149 distinguishes between Noun and 19 Noun where both components are ordinary nouns, Noun and noun where the second noun is a nomen agentis, and Noun and Noun where the second component is a gerund. For the first category, the example is steel bridge. He claims that 88 of his data whose origin is unclear have end-stress and that “… a compound needs to become established before it tends to develop single stress [= fore –stress]” p. 150. It means that phrases will have the end-stress while compounds have the fore-stress. The example of the second category is watch-maker. He finds fore-stress except where the first component is not the object of the second town crier. Finally for the third category, he finds again fore-stress in 88 of all cases e.g. foxhunting , the exception is when “… the first component has an attributive function towards the gerund” p. 153: lead poisoning and mass meeting. In addition, Fudge 1984: 144 observes that end-stress among a noun and a noun is likely to occur in the following categories: a where N1 is a location or a time kitchen sink, night watchman and b where N1 is a material N2 is made of cotton dress, meat pie. Other examples which use end-stress include Ilkley Moor , William Smith, and pound note. What is important to note here is that both Kingdon and Fudge identify a noun and a noun, where N1 has the function as attributive, will have end-stress. While on the other hand, items such as watch- maker , where N1 is the „object‟ of N2, have fore-stress. However, there are some words like glass case vs. glass case, steel warehouse vs. steel warehouse, where stress differences correlate very clearly with meaning differences Bauer, 1998; Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002; Fai ß, 1981; 20 Ladd, 1984. The followings are the rules which tell us whether this kind of words combination is a phrase. First, the stress of a phrase will follow the rule offered by Liberman and Prince 1977: “In any pair of sister nodes [AB]X, where X is a phrasal category, B is strong.” p. 257. Therefore, glass case is a phrase. Second, the pre-head dependent of a noun, in a syntactic construction, must be a modifier attribute Quirk et al, 1985. Therefore, toy factory means a factory which is made of a toy. Meanwhile, toy factory means a factory which produces a toy. As for the compound, first, the stress is on the first syllable Bauer, 1983; Plag, 2003; Quirk et al, 1985. It indicates that most of the compounds have fore- stress. Therefore, blackbird, newspaper, toothbrush, match maker, and other examples of compounds are stressed on the first lexeme. Second, like most complex words, they will be expected to be right-headed Lieber, 1992. It means that the rightmost lexeme in a compound is expected to determine the meaning of the compound itself. Therefore, school boy is a kind of boy. It also implies to junk food which is also a kind of food. This kind of compound is usually called endocentric compound. It is the most common compound in English Bauer, 1983; Katamba, 1993; Plag, 2003; Quirk et al, 1985. However, there are also compounds which are left-headed, for instance feedback which is a kind of feed and worldwide which is a kind of world. Moreover, there are compounds which do not have head or headless, for instance sugar daddy and broadway. This kind of compound is also called exocentric compound. 21 Third, Bauer 1998 discusses that the first element of a noun and a noun should not be plural just as ”eventsful”. The plural should be deleted. Moreover, the elements of Noun and Noun should not permit independent anaphora, or replacement with one ”a bus-driver and a truck one”. Besides, they should not be independently modifiable. There is a class of a noun and a noun which has the regular dependent- plus-head structure but where the semantic relationship between the two elements is unpredictable. The examples of this kind of class are exemplified in the table below. Table 2.6: Examples of Compounds Examples of Compounds Battlefield seat-belt fruit-market windscreen glass case fog horn hand cream hair net milk bottle tea spoon tear gas mosquito-net Toothpaste shoe-horn toy factory hair oil sparrow-hawk brick-yard Giegerich, 2004, p. 8 The semantic relationships which occur in such Noun and Noun have been classified by Adams 1973: 60; 2001: 82. It can be seen that in most cases the paraphrase „N for N‟ milkbottle „bottle for milk‟ is correct. However, that interpretation is only possible when the construction is fore -stressed. If it is end- stressed, it has entirely different meanings: 22 Table 2.7: Examples of Phrases Phrases Meaning sparrow hawk „hawk that is a sparrow‟ toy factory „factory that is a toy‟ milk bottle „bottle made of milk‟ glass case „case made of glass‟ tooth paste „paste made of teeth‟ hair oil „oil made of hair‟ hair net „net made of hair‟ tear gas „gas made of tears‟ brick yard „yard made of bricks‟ Giegerich, 2004, p. 8 The difference between Table 2.6 and Table 2.7 lies in the distinction between complement and attribute dependents in Noun and Noun constructions: in Table 2.7, the dependent has an attributive interpretation, while in Table 2.6 it is a complement. What is important here is that, for an interpretation other than that in Table 2.7, it has to have fore-stress. Fore-stress is only available in the lexicon compound. Besides, the existence of complement-head structure for a noun and a noun construction happens in a compound. This suggests that a noun and a noun constructions with semantic interpretations other than those in Table 2.7 must be lexical. Next, the researcher is going to discuss corpus linguistics which is related to the second research problem. 6. Corpus Linguistics Corpus linguistics is a study of language used through corpora the plural form of corpus. According to Bennet 2010 , corpus is “a large principled collection of naturally occurring examples of language stored electronically ” p.2. Corpora can give information about the frequency, register, and how language is used Bennet, 2010, p.5. Bennet also adds that usually, the researcher 23 will use a frequency list to show that information. A frequency list “displays the words occurring in a corpus along with the number of times each word appears ” Bennet, 2010: 5. This theory can be beneficial in this study because it will help the researcher to make the frequency list of compound nouns that she analyzed. However, corpus linguistics does not provide negative evidence. It means that corpus linguistics cannot tell that the word is correct or not. It only tells us that this word exists in the corpus or not. Besides, corpus linguistics cannot provide all possible language at one time. It means that the language in the corpus is not random but it is prepared and planned before. The last thing is corpus linguistics also cannot explain the reasons why this language in the corpus is like this. The researcher should use his or her intuitions to answer and explain that question. 7. Previous Research Swastikasari 2009 did almost similar study to this research. Her title of the thesis is “A Study on the Common and Compound Nouns Used by the Indonesian and non-Indonesian Writers in the Opinion Column of The Jakarta Post ”. She analyzed all nouns that she could find in the articles. However, in this thesis, the researcher only analyzed compound nouns. In her thesis, she used two opinions articles about Global Warming from The Jakarta Post in September and October 2007. The articles are taken from the Indonesian writer and non- Indonesian writer. She presented the table of frequency, type, form, and marker of the selected nouns from the opinion articles. In other words, she focused on the nouns 24 and analyzes them in terms of frequency, type, form, and marker. She included compound as one of the types of the selected nouns. From the 29 nouns in the article written by Indonesian writer, there are 6 compound nouns. Meanwhile, there are seven compound nouns from 23 nouns found in the opinion article of non-Indonesian writer. It proves that compound nouns are frequently used in the articles. Based on the findings by Swastikasari in 2009, the researcher tried to prove that compound nouns occur commonly in the articles of The Jakarta Post. The previous theories are related to the study about compound nouns. After discussing those related theories in theoretical description, the researcher provides the theoretical framework. It contains the theories which are used to answer the research problems. Those theories can be seen in the following section.

B. Theoretical Framework

In English, there is a term called compound. Compound is a group of words which act as one single lexical item. There are four lexical categories in English. Those categories are Noun, Adjective, Verb, and Preposition. In other words, there are four kinds of compounds in English. However, in this thesis, the researcher is only going to discuss compound nouns found in the articles of The Jakarta Post . In order to answer the first research problem, researcher will use the theory from Bauer 1983, Curme 1947, Frank 1972, Katamba 1993, Matthews 2009, O‟ Graddy 1997, Plag 2003, and Quirk et al 1985 to determine the compound nouns. It means, the researcher will decide the compound nouns found 25 in the article whether they are formed by Noun and Noun, Adjective and Noun, Preposition and Noun, or Verb and Noun. After that, the researcher is going to differentiate the types of compound nouns using the theory from Katamba 1993 and O‟Graddy 1997. Those types of compounds are endocentric, exocentric, and verbal compounds. Endocentric means the meaning of the compound is related to the meaning of its rightmost morpheme, while exocentric means the opposite of endocentric. Verbal compound is related to endocentric compound which the head of the compound is derived from verb. For example is “goal keeper”. Besides, the researcher tries to explore left-headed compounds which are not common in English. Next, the researc her will use Bennet‟s 2010 theory about corpus linguistics to answer the second research problem. The compound nouns found in the articles will be listed into a frequency list. By doing so, we can see the frequency of compound nouns found in the articles of The Jakarta Post. 26

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the researcher discusses the research methodology used to answer the research problems. There are six sections that will be discussed in this chapter. Those sections are the research method, the sources of data, the research instruments, the data gathering technique, the data analysis technique, and the research procedure.

A. Research Method

The research method used to answer the research problems in this thesis is qualitative research. According to Ary et al 2002, the goal of qualitative research is the depth of understanding rather than the numerical data. Moreover, “data analysis in qualitative research is often done concurrently or simultaneously with data collection through an iterative, recursive, and dynamic process ” Ary et al, 2010, p. 481. It means that the researcher also did the data analysis while collecting the data. In addition, “qualitative data might be quantitized by counting the number of times a particular word is used or the number of times a particular theme is identified ” Ary et al, 2010, p. 564. That is why the researcher used frequency list to expose the data in this study. This kind of study is also called mixed method because the data collection is qualitative but the data analysis is quantitative Ary et al, 2010, p. 564. 27 Specifically, the type of research used in this study is document analysis. It is one of the methods used in qualitative research. According to Corbin and Strauss 2008, document analysis is a systematic procedure to review or evaluate both printed and online document. Besides, Fraenkel and Wallen 1993 declare that the purpose of document analysis is to “obtain an in-depth look at a particular set of materials” p. 380 after reviewing the document.

B. Sources of Data

The sources of data in this study were taken from the articles in The Jakarta Post online edition. The articles used in this study are in the Sci-Tech and Digital Life sections. The researcher believed that there are a lot of compound nouns in these sections. Moreover, the researcher decided to analyze the articles released in late 2014 until early 2015. The articles were written by national writers and international writers. The researcher chose 25 articles written by national and international writers. It is because in that period of time, there were only those 25 articles in The Jakarta Post online edition. In other words, the researcher did convenient sampling because she could access and took the data that had been there.

C. Research Instruments

In this study, the researcher acts as human instrument. It is because the researcher “is more responsive to the situation and he or she is able to adapt to the 28 changing conditions ” Guba Lincoln, 1994, p.12. This statement means that the researcher can process the data immediately and confirm the source or related references if there is uncertainty. Besides, Guba and Lincoln 1994 add that it is only humans who can collect the confusing data and then process it so that it becomes available and easier for others to understand it. It means that only the researcher who could do the analysis. After that, she interpreted the data in easier way so that other people can get the meaning of the data.

D. Data Gathering Technique

The data in this study were collected from the articles of The Jakarta Post online edition. The researcher used the online edition because the development of technology makes many people prefer to go online rather than read the printed newspaper. The researcher selected the articles by looking at particular topics which have more compounds than the others. Those particular topics are Sci-Tech and Digital Life. Besides, the researcher paid attention on the date of publication late 2014 until early 2015. There are four steps that the researcher took in the study to gather the data. First, the researcher conducted the research by analyzing the online articles of The Jakarta Post . After that, the researcher collected the information from the dictionary and the references theories. Next, the researcher selected 25 articles which have many compound nouns from Sci-Tech and Digital Life columns.