Last, Indonesian also has combination of prefix {per-} and affix { –kan}
which implies the meaning cause the object to be. The example of memperlihatkan implies the meaning of cause the object to be seen. This combination happens with
verb, adjective, and noun. See the examples at the table below.
Table 2.7 {Per-} and { –kan} to Form Causative Meaning in Indonesian
Part of Speech
Root {Per-} + root +
{-kan} {Mem-} + {Per-} +
root + {-kan} Meaning
Verb Ingat
remember Peringatkan
Memperingatkan Cause someone
to remember Adjective
Siap ready
Persiapkan Mempersiapkan
Cause something to be prepared
Noun Masalah
problem Permasalahkan
Mempermasalahkan Cause something becomes problem
However, there is also an analytical construction of causative in Indonesian. Analytical construction of causative is a kind of a sentence which has no special
morpheme or lexical to notify the causative construction Oktavianti, 2012. According to Oktavianti 2012, analytical construction of causative in Indonesia can
be examined from the whole sentence construction. There are two elements in analytical construction of causative in Indonesian which are the reason and the effect.
For example, in the sentence ‘Ali membuatku sedih’ has Ali as the reason and sedih as
the effect Oktavianti, 2012. The verbs signing for this structure are membuat, menyuruh, memaksa, membujuk, etc. Nonetheless, this construction of causative is
not really productive in Indonesian Oktavianti, 2012.
6. Errors
Crystal explains the term ‘error’ as the mistakes in spontaneous speaking or writing 2008: 173. The error may involve difficulties with timing or sequence
commands that will lead to the addition, deletion, or substitution of sounds and morphemes Crystal
, 2008: 173. Crystal explains this phenomenon as ‘slips of the tongue 2008: 173. Dulay, Burt, and Krashen define ‘error’ as the kind of any
deviation from selected norm or language performance, no matter what the characteristics or causes might be 1982
: 139. Overall, ‘error’ is the deviation, mostly unintended, which appears on speaking or writing due to several causes.
In language and teaching learning, error analysis is a technique for identifying, classifying, and interpreting the unacceptable forms produced by second
language learners Crystal, 2008: 173. Some linguists assume that the error made by second language learners may have relation to the adaptability of the second language
to the mother language. However, the cause such as the lack of knowledge of the rules of the language is also one of the reasons of why the cause can happen Dulay,
Burt, and Krashen, 1982: 139. Error analysis has been well-spread learned by the linguists, especially
teachers, to analyze the difficulty that the students have in learning the second language. As the explanation done by Dulay, Burt, and Krashen, there are two major
purposes of studying learners’ errors: 1 it provides data from which inferences about the nature of the language learning process can be made; and 2 it indicates to
teachers and curriculum developers which part of TL that students find difficult and
which error types detract most from a learner’s ability to communicate effectively 1982: 138. The identification of errors holds a significant step in this research that it
will involve a comparison between what the learners have produced and what a native speaker will produce in the same context Ellis and Barkhuizen, 2005: 58. By
identifying and analyzing the factors of errors, it is hoped that the development of second language teaching will be better in the future.
a. Types of Errors
There are four types of errors that can be observed in learning a language: 1 omission; 2 addition; 3 misformation; and 4 misordering Dulay, Burt, Krashen,
1982: 154. The explanation of the types of errors can be seen from the table below,
Table 2.8 The Explanation of Types of Errors
Omission Meaning
The absence of an item that must appear in the correct form of utterance Dulay, Burt, Krashen, 1982: 154.
Examples She beautiful, The cake eaten by dad.
Addition Meaning
The presence of an item which must not appear in the correct form of utterance Dulay, Burt, Krashen, 1982:
156.
Examples He
doesn’t knows my name,
Eated for past tense of eat Misformation
Meaning
The wrong form of the morpheme or structure Dulay, Burt, Krashen, 1982: 158.
Examples runned for run or gooses for geese, it to replace the dogs.
Misordering Meaning
The incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance Dulay, Burt, Krashen,
1982: 162.
Examples He is all the time late, I don’t know what is that.
