54 TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS
clause needs an independent clause: Though it was wet, Ximena walked on the grass. Sentences that contain an independent clause
and a dependent clause are called complex sentences.
Quick tip: To identify a sentence fragment or dependent
clause on the TOEFL exam, look for the following joining words, called subordinating conjunctions. When a clause has a sub-
ordinating conjunction, it needs an independent clause to com- plete an idea.
after because
once though
when although
before since
unless where
as, as if if
that until
while
Practice
Underline the independent clauses in the following sentences. Find the answers on page 82.
1. I went for a walk downtown and mailed your letter. 2. If it is hot tomorrow, let’s go to the beach.
3. The 20-foot-tall, long-necked giraffe is the tallest living
animal on Earth.
4. The log-cabin quilt was probably designed as a way to give
a second life to unwieldy but warm fabrics salvaged from suits and coats.
PARTS OF SPEECH
A word can be classified as a different part of speech depending on how it works in a sentence. For example, the word quiet can
be a noun, verb, or adjective; add –ly and it can function as an adverb. This table lists the parts of speech:
STRUCTURE 55
Part of Speech Function
Examples
noun names a person,
Emma, cat, girl, Elm place, thing, or
Street, vase, pen, New concept
York, weather pronoun takes the place of a
I, you, he, she, us, they, this, noun so that the
that, themselves, some- noun does not have
body, who, which to be repeated
verb describes an action,
swim, becomes, is, occurrence, or state
seemed, hoping of being
helping combines with other forms of be, do and have; verb
verbs main verbs to can, could, may, might, create verb phrases
must, shall, should, will, that help indicate
would tenses
adjective describes nouns and green, content, awake, pronouns; can also
small, heavy, happy; that identify or quantify
e.g., that car; several e.g., several dogs
adverb describes verbs, adjec- quickly, slowly, suddenly,
tives, other adverbs, always, very, yesterday
or entire clauses prep-
expresses the relation- in, on, around, above, osition
ship in time or space between, underneath, between words in a
beside, with, upon sentence
56 TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
She don’t or she doesn’t? You might easily pick out the second version as the correct match between subject and verb. However,
some instances of subject-verb agreement are trickier—even for native speakers of English.
Subject-verb agreement is when the subject of the sentence correctly matches the verb in number. If the subject is singular,
the verb is singular. If the subject is plural, the verb is plural.
Singular: Betto feeds the birds every day. Plural: Betto and Josephine feed the birds every day.
Subject-verb agreement can be confusing, however. Look out for problem verb forms and the other common pitfalls listed
below.
■
The subject I—Even though I is a single person, it usually takes the plural form of the verb: I look. I do.
■
The verb to be—The irregular verb to be be, am, is, are, was, were is a problem verb because of the unusual way
it is formed. Remember never to use the be form after a subject.
I be going is incorrect. I am going is correct.
■
Doesn’tdon’t, Wasn’tweren’t—These verb constructions can confuse writers. Doesn’t does not and
STRUCTURE 57
wasn’t was not are singular. Don’t do not and weren’t were not are plural. I takes the plural form, don’t
I don’t want to leave. I wasn’t in class yesterday.
She doesn’t want to leave. We weren’t in class yesterday.
■
Words or phrases that follow a subject—A common error in making subject-verb agreement is confusing a
phrase words or phrase that follow a subject with the subject of the sentence. When you read, be careful to
locate the true subject of the sentence. Subject and verbs are underlined in the following examples.
One of the boys is missing. The paintings by Pedro Reiss are bold and commanding.
The president, along with three members of his Cabinet,
returned to Washington today.
■
Singular nouns that end in s—Some words like measles, mumps, news, checkers or marbles games, physics,
economics, sports, and politics are singular despite their plural form, because we think of them as a single thing.
Some are singular or plural depending on how they are used in a sentence.
The news begins at 6 p.m. Aerobics is a great way to get in shape and reduce stress.
■
Pronoun subjects—Pronouns are misused often in speech and writing. Some pronouns are always singular,
whereas others are always plural. A few can be either singular or plural. Each, either, neither, anybody, anyone,
