What file is instrumental in preventing dictionary attacks against Unix systems?

experts. The Allies successfully broke the Enigma code in 1940, and historians credit this tri- umph as playing a significant role in the eventual defeat of the Axis powers. The Japanese used a similar machine, known as the Japanese Purple Machine, during World War II. A significant American attack on this cryptosystem resulted in the breaking of the Jap- anese code prior to the end of the war. The Americans were aided by the fact that Japanese com- municators used very formal message formats that resulted in a large amount of similar text in multiple messages, easing the cryptanalytic effort. Cryptographic Basics The study of any science must begin with a discussion of some of the fundamental principles it is built upon. The following sections lay this foundation with a review of the goals of cryptog- raphy, an overview of the basic concepts of cryptographic technology, and a look at the major mathematical principles utilized by cryptographic systems. Goals of Cryptography Security practitioners utilize cryptographic systems to meet four fundamental goals: confiden- tiality, integrity, authentication, and nonrepudiation. Achieving each of these goals requires the satisfaction of a number of design requirements, and not all cryptosystems are intended to achieve all four goals. In the following sections, we’ll examine each goal in detail and give a brief description of the technical requirements necessary to achieve it. Confidentiality Confidentiality ensures that a message remains private during transmission between two or more parties. This is perhaps the most widely cited goal of cryptosystems—the facilitation of secret communications between individuals and groups. There are two main types of crypto- systems that enforce confidentiality. Symmetric key cryptosystems make use of a shared secret key available to all users of the cryptosystem. Public key cryptosystems utilize individual com- binations of public and private keys for each user of the system. Both of these concepts are explored in the section “Modern Cryptography” later in this chapter. Integrity Integrity ensures that a message is not altered while in transit. If integrity mechanisms are in place, the recipient of a message can be certain that the message received is identical to the message that was sent. This protects against all forms of alteration: intentional alteration by a third party attempting to insert false information and unintentional alteration by faults in the transmission process. Message integrity is enforced through the use of digitally signed message digests created upon transmission of a message. The recipient of the message simply verifies that the message’s digest and signature is valid, ensuring that the message was not altered in transit. Integrity can be enforced by both public and secret key cryptosystems. This concept is discussed in detail in the sec- tion “Digital Signatures” in Chapter 10, “PKI and Cryptographic Applications.”