In the RSA public key cryptosystem, which one of the following numbers will always be largest?

Those processors return their results to the coordinating processor where they are assembled and returned to the requesting application. MPP systems are extremely powerful not to men- tion extremely expensive and are the focus of a good deal of computing research. Both types of multiprocessing provide unique advantages and are suitable for different types of situations. SMP systems are adept at processing simple operations at extremely high rates, whereas MPP systems are uniquely suited for processing very large, complex, computationally intensive tasks that lend themselves to decomposition and distribution into a number of subor- dinate parts. MULTIPROGRAMMING Multiprogramming is similar to multitasking. It involves the pseudo-simultaneous execution of two tasks on a single processor coordinated by the operating system as a way to increase oper- ational efficiency. Multiprogramming is considered a relatively obsolete technology and is rarely found in use today except in legacy systems. There are two main differences between mul- tiprogramming and multitasking: Multiprogramming usually takes place on large-scale systems, such as mainframes, whereas multitasking takes place on PC operating systems, such as Windows and Linux. Multitasking is normally coordinated by the operating system, whereas multiprogramming requires specially written software that coordinates its own activities and execution through the operating system. MULTITHREADING Multithreading permits multiple concurrent tasks to be performed within a single process. Unlike multitasking, where multiple tasks occupy multiple processes, multithreading permits multiple tasks to operate within a single process. Multithreading is often used in applications where frequent context switching between multiple active processes consumes excessive over- head and reduces efficiency. In multithreading, switching between threads incurs far less overhead and is therefore more efficient. In modern Windows implementations, for example, the over- head involved in switching from one thread to another within a single process is on the order of 40 to 50 instructions, with no substantial memory transfers needed. Whereas switching from one process to another involves 1,000 instructions or more and requires substantial memory transfers as well. A good example of multithreading occurs when multiple documents are opened at the same time in a word processing program. In that situation, you do not actually run multiple instances of the word processor—this would place far too great a demand on the system. Instead, each document is treated as a single thread within a single word processor process, and the software chooses which thread it works on at any given moment. Symmetric multiprocessing systems actually make use of threading at the operating system level. As in the word processing example just described, the operating system also contains a number of threads that control the tasks assigned to it. In a single-processor system, the OS sends one thread at a time to the processor for execution. SMP systems send one thread to each available processor for simultaneous execution.