9 g.
Develop and Select Instructional Material In this step, the designer uses the instructional strategy to produce the
instruction. This typically includes guidance for learners, instructional materials, and assessment.
h. Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction.
In this step, series of evaluation are conducted to collect the data used to identify problems with instruction or opportunities to make the instruction better.
This step has purpose to help create and improve instructional processes and products.
i. Revise Instruction
Data from the formative evaluation is summarized and interpreted to identify difficulties experienced by learners in achieving the objectives and to
relate these difficulties to specific deficiencies in the instruction. j.
Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation This evaluation occurs only after the instruction has been formatively
evaluated and sufficiently revised to meet the standards of the designer. The summative evaluation is usually not conducted by the designer but by an
independent evaluator to know the effectiveness of the instruction.
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Figure 2.1 Dick and Carey ’s System Approach Model Dick and Carey, 2009
2. Teaching Speaking
There are three points to be discussed in this part. They are the nature of speaking, principles of teaching speaking, and speaking tasks.
a. The Nature of Speaking
According to Nunan 1989, there are two approaches of speaking. First, bottom-up approach to speaking suggests that the learners start with the smallest
unit of language. Second, the top-down approach suggests that the learners start with the large chunks of language and use the knowledge of it to comprehend the
smaller elements of language.
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b. The Principles of Teaching Speaking
Bailey 1994 as cited by Nunan 2003, p. 54-56 stated that there are five principles of teaching speaking. They are 1 be aware of the differences between
second language and foreign language, 2 give students practice with both fluency and accuracy, 3 provide opportunities for students to talk by using group
work or pair work, and limiting teacher talk, 4 plan speaking tasks that involve negotiation for meaning, 5 design classroom activities that involve guidance and
practice in both transactional and interactional.
c. Speaking Tasks
According to Harmer 2001, p. 271-274, there are six speaking tasks that mostly used in the classroom. There are many types of classroom speaking
activities. They are acting from script, communication games, discussion, prepared talks, questionnaires, simulation, and role play.
1 Acting from the script
Playing scripts and acting out the dialogues are two kinds of acting scripts that should be considered by the teacher in the teaching and learning process. In
the playing scripts, it is important for the students to teach it as real acting. The role of the teacher in this activity is as theatre directors, drawing attention to
appropriate stress, intonation, and speed. 2
Communication games Games are designed to provoke communication between students. The
games are made based on the principle of the information gap so that one student
12 has to talk to a partner in order to solve a puzzle, draw a picture, put a thing in the
right order, or find similarities and differences between pictures. 3
Discussion or buzz groups Here, the students are allowed to express their real opinions. According to
Harmer 2001, p. 272 discussion range is divided into several stages from highly formal, whole-group staged events to informal small-group interactions.
4 Prepared talks
Students make a presentation on a topic of their own choice. Such talks are not designed for informal spontaneous conversations because they are prepared
and more ‘writing like’. 5
Questionnaires Questionnaires are very useful because they ensure that both a questioner
and a respondent have something to say to each other. Students can design questionnaires on any topic that is appropriate. As they do so the teacher can act
as a resource, helping them in the design process. The results obtained from questionnaires can form the basis for written work, discussions, or prepared talks.
6 Simulation and role-play
Simulation and role play can be used to encourage general oral fluency, or to train students for specific situations. Students can act out simulation as them or
take on the role of completely different character and express thoughts and feelings as they do in the real world.
