ellipsis, the division is normally used is the same as that applied to substitution; nominal 1, verbal 2, and clausal ellipsis 3.
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Example: 1
These monkeys are naughty. Those are calm.
2
He joined the contest, but you didn’t.
3
Who will hang out with me tonight? You? 3.
Reference
In general, the dummy word is reference. Substitution and ellipsis deal with the relationship between grammatical unit: words, sentence parts, and
clauses. In the case of reference, the meaning of a dummy word can be determined by what is imparted before or after the occurrence of the dummy
word. In general, the dummy word is a pronoun. There are three kinds of reference. They are personal, demonstrative, and comparative.
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a. Personal Reference
It is used to express the category of personals includes theferebc three classes of personal pronouns, possessive determiners ususally called
“possessive adjective, and possessive pronouns. Here are a number of personal references by using the term “person”.
Person Head
Modifier Personal
pronun Possessive
determiner Possessive
pronoun
5
Jan Renkema 1993, Op.Cit. p. 37.
6
Halliday and Hassan 1976, Op.Cit., pp. 44 – 45.
1
st
person singular I
Me My
Mine 1
st
person plural We
Us Our
Ours 2
nd
person singular You
You Your
Yours 2
nd
person plural You
You Your
Yours 2
nd
person male He
Him His
His 2
nd
person female She
Her Her
Hers 3
rd
person plural They
Them Their
Theirs 3
rd
person object It
It Its
Its Generalized person
One One
One’s Ones
For examples: 1
Angella has met someone’s bag in the street. She is now trying to
return it to the owner. 2
Angella’s new achievement as the best model of the year has raised her
popularity. Her boyfriend must be so proud of her.
3
Those clothes are Angella’s. My son told me that those are hers. b.
Demonstrative Reference
Demonstrative reference is used to express the location of a process in space or time by using here, there, now, and then. Furthermore, to express the
location of something, this, these, that, those, and then are used.
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Example: 1
I am trying hard to get a branch manager position in my company. 2
That is being tried by some employees now.
7
Halliday and Hassan 1976, Op.Cit., p. 309.
The use of demonstrative reference that above refers to branch manager position, meanwhile another demonstrative reference now refers to the
time of the discourse.
c. Comparative Reference
It is used to express the similarity, identity, and differences of a text.
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Types of comparative reference: 1
Genetic deictic refers to identity, similarity, and difference. It also has non-identity, non-similarity.
i. Identity: same, equal, identical, and identically.
ii. Similarity: such similar, so similarly, and likewise.
iii. Difference: other, different else, differently, otherwise.
2 Particular: enumerative and epithet.
i. Enumerative: it is used to refer to the quantity or quality of the
reference. E.g.: more, fewer, less, further, additional, so-as-equally, quantifier.
ii. Epithet: to express by means of adjectives and adverb in some
comparative form. Form: less-equally + comparative adjectives and adverbs.
Examples: -
I need more clothes for the tsunami victims. enumerative -
His general knowledge is better than mine. epithet
8
Halliday and Hassan 1976, Op.Cit., p. 313.
4. Conjuction
