Text Cohesiveness Degree THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

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CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. Text

The word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole. A text may be spoken or writen, prose or verse, dialogue or monologue. It may be anything from a single proverb to a whole play, from a momentary cry for help to an all-discussion on a committee. 1 Halliday and Hassan’s opinion above can be concluded that something can be called a text if it is used for communication. This case makes differentiation between text and a disconnected sequence sentences. A disconnected sequence sentences are just unrelated sentences. Although their grammar are good, they are very difficult to be understood, because their meaning are unrelated each other. While, a text is usually sentences which are related grammatically and semantically. In other words, grammar and meaning of the text are in good relation, so, the reader or listener will be easier to understand what the writer or speaker means. The elements of the text which are related grammatically and semantically is called cohesion. Text is a way to convey information from the speakers to the listeners or the writers to the readers. Sometimes, it will be very difficult to catch the information that is meant by the speaker or the writer if the listener or the reader 1 Halliday and Hassan, Cohesion in English London: Longman Group Limited. 1976, p. 1. attempts to get it by translating the words one by one. Even, they don’t really understand some vocabularies of the language that is used e.g. English. To avoid this situation, the text must have cohesion.

B. Cohesion

Cohesion is an important element in a discourse or written text. Cohesion is connection between an element with another element in a text so that it has good comprehension. To make this comprehension in a text, the elements can be connected by their grammar or structure and their lexicon or vocabulary. If it is connected by their grammar, it means that it is used grammatical cohesion, and if it is connected by their vocabulary, it means that it is used lexical cohesion. Lexical cohesion makes the listeners or the readers understand what the speakers or the writers mean, because lexical cohesion gives specific meaning through the vocabulary. A discourse or written text must be arranged compactly and cohesively, so it needs cohesion, because cohesion is a grammatical syntactic and lexical semantic relationship between sentences in a discourse. If someone has good capability and ability in cohesion, he or she can produce a good discourse. A good discourse can be seen from the continuity of its information or the meaning unity of it. Because of the meaning unity is made by cohesion, cohesion is called a semantic relation. Halliday and Hassan said in their book Cohesion in English that: “Like other semantic relation, cohesion is expressed through the strata organization of language. Language can be explained as a multiple coding system comprising three levels of coding or “strata”: the semantic meanings, the lexicogrammatical forms and the phonological and orthographic expressions. Lexicogrammatical is the choice of words and grammatical structures. Within the stratum there is no hard-and-fast division between vocabulary and grammar; the guiding principle in language is that the more general meanings are expressed through the grammar, and the more specific meaning through the vocabulary. Cohesive relations fit into the same overall pattern. Cohesion is expressed partly through the grammar and partly through the vocabulary. We can refer therefore to grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion.” 2 Halliday and Hassan’s statements above conclude that cohesion is divided into two main parts: grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. Halliday and Hassan also make some kinds of grammatical cohesion. They are substitution, ellipsis, reference, and conjunction. While, lexical cohesion contains reiteration and collocation. C. Grammatical Cohesion 1. Substitution Substitution is the replacement of a word group sentence segment by a dummy word. The reader or listener can fill in the correct element based on the preceding. There are three types of substitution, that of a noun, a verb, and a clause.

a. Noun Substitution

Noun substitution is the replacement of a noun in a sentence by an appropriate dummy word. The noun substitution is usually marked by the use of “ones and same”. Example: 2 Ibid., pp. 5- 6. 1 These biscuits are stale. Get the fresh ones. 3 2 I like that green t-shirt. Please take me the same thing. b. Verbal Substitution Verbal substitution is the replacement of a verb of a sentences by an appropriate dummy word. The verb substitution is commonly signaled by the verb “do”. 4 Example: 1 I do really like those glittering fruits. 2 I didn’t understand about her life concept. c. Clausal Substitution Clausal substitution is the replacement of a clause of a sentence by an appropriate dummy word. The clause substitution is commonly marked by the clause “so and not”. Example: 1 - John will not come to Juliette’s party tomorrow as he said that he didn’t really have a good stamina. - It seems so. 2 - I think you are a good boy. - I am not.

2. Ellipsis

It is the omission of a word or a part of a sentence is closely related to substitution. Ellipsis can be described as “substitution by zero”. In the case of 3 Jan Renkema. A Discourse Study: An Introductory Textbook. Philadelphia:John Benyamins Publishing Company, 1993, p.32. 4 Halliday and Hassan 1976, Op.Cit., p. 315. ellipsis, the division is normally used is the same as that applied to substitution; nominal 1, verbal 2, and clausal ellipsis 3. 5 Example: 1 These monkeys are naughty. Those are calm. 2 He joined the contest, but you didn’t. 3 Who will hang out with me tonight? You? 3. Reference In general, the dummy word is reference. Substitution and ellipsis deal with the relationship between grammatical unit: words, sentence parts, and clauses. In the case of reference, the meaning of a dummy word can be determined by what is imparted before or after the occurrence of the dummy word. In general, the dummy word is a pronoun. There are three kinds of reference. They are personal, demonstrative, and comparative. 6

a. Personal Reference

It is used to express the category of personals includes theferebc three classes of personal pronouns, possessive determiners ususally called “possessive adjective, and possessive pronouns. Here are a number of personal references by using the term “person”. Person Head Modifier Personal pronun Possessive determiner Possessive pronoun 5 Jan Renkema 1993, Op.Cit. p. 37. 6 Halliday and Hassan 1976, Op.Cit., pp. 44 – 45. 1 st person singular I Me My Mine 1 st person plural We Us Our Ours 2 nd person singular You You Your Yours 2 nd person plural You You Your Yours 2 nd person male He Him His His 2 nd person female She Her Her Hers 3 rd person plural They Them Their Theirs 3 rd person object It It Its Its Generalized person One One One’s Ones For examples: 1 Angella has met someone’s bag in the street. She is now trying to return it to the owner. 2 Angella’s new achievement as the best model of the year has raised her popularity. Her boyfriend must be so proud of her. 3 Those clothes are Angella’s. My son told me that those are hers. b. Demonstrative Reference Demonstrative reference is used to express the location of a process in space or time by using here, there, now, and then. Furthermore, to express the location of something, this, these, that, those, and then are used. 7 Example: 1 I am trying hard to get a branch manager position in my company. 2 That is being tried by some employees now. 7 Halliday and Hassan 1976, Op.Cit., p. 309. The use of demonstrative reference that above refers to branch manager position, meanwhile another demonstrative reference now refers to the time of the discourse.

c. Comparative Reference

It is used to express the similarity, identity, and differences of a text. 8 Types of comparative reference: 1 Genetic deictic refers to identity, similarity, and difference. It also has non-identity, non-similarity. i. Identity: same, equal, identical, and identically. ii. Similarity: such similar, so similarly, and likewise. iii. Difference: other, different else, differently, otherwise. 2 Particular: enumerative and epithet. i. Enumerative: it is used to refer to the quantity or quality of the reference. E.g.: more, fewer, less, further, additional, so-as-equally, quantifier. ii. Epithet: to express by means of adjectives and adverb in some comparative form. Form: less-equally + comparative adjectives and adverbs. Examples: - I need more clothes for the tsunami victims. enumerative - His general knowledge is better than mine. epithet 8 Halliday and Hassan 1976, Op.Cit., p. 313.

4. Conjuction

Conjunction is a relationship which indicates how the subsequent sentence or clause should be linked to the preceding or the following parts of the sentences. This is usually achieved by the use of conjunctions. The following are the examples of three frequently occuring relationship; addition, causality, temporality, and adversative. 9 The relationship can be hypotactic as in the “a” examples which combine a main clause with a subordinate clause or phrase or paratactic as in the “b” examples which have two main clause. a. Addition Addition acts to structurally, coordinate or link by adding to the presupposed item and is signaled through “and, also, too, furthemore, additionally, etc”. It may also act to negate the prersupposed item and signaled by “nor, and….not, either, neither”. For instances: 1 Besides being mean, he is also hateful. 2 He no longer goes to school and is planning to look for a job. b. Causality Causality expresses “result, reason, and purposes” and is signaled by “so, thus, hence, therefore, consequently, for this reason, as a result, in the respect, however, etc.”. For example: 1 He is not going to school today because he is sick. 9 Halliday and Hassan 1976, Op.Cit., p. 238. 2 Mary got married to John last yearand now she’s pregnant. c. Temporality Temporality links the things by signaling sequence or time. Halliday and Hassan mention that the item of temporal conjunctions are only then and and then but also next, after that, next day, until then, at the same time, at this point, etc.” 10 For example: 1 After the car had been repaired, we were able to continueour journey. 2 The car was repaired. Aftrewards we were able to continue our journey. d. Adversative Adversative acts to indicate “contrary to expectation” are signaled by “yet, though, only, but, in fact, rather, etc.”. 11 Another term of adversative conjuction is disjunction “which links things of which only one can be true in the textual world.” For instance: 1 All the figures were correct; they’d been checked. Yet the total came out wrong.

D. Lexical Cohesion

Lexical cohesion is the cohesive effect achieved by selection of vocabulary. 12 Those vocabularies are arranged semantically and create continuity of meaning. This continuity makes the sentences in the text hang together. Lexical 10 Halliday and Hassan 1976, Op.Cit., p. 261. 11 Ibid. p. 250. 12 Ibid., p. 274. cohesion embraces two different aspects, which are related each other. They are reiteration and collocation.

1. Reiteration

This is the repetition of a lexical item, or the occurrence of a synonym of some kind, in the context of reference; that is, where the two occurrences have the same referent. 13 It can be concluded from Guy Cook’s statement above that reiteration can appear in three forms. First, it appears in the repetition of a lexical item. Second, it can be seen in the occurrence of a synonym, and the last it can be found in two occurrences that have same referent. Halliday and Hassan have different opinions, they said that: “When we talk about reiteration, therefore, we are including not only the repetition of the same lexical item but also the occurrence of a related item, which may be anything froudym synonym or near synonym of the original to a general word dominating the entire class. Let us categorize these as above: any instance of reiteration may be a same word, b a synonym or near-synonym, c a superordinate or d a general word.” 14 The writer gets some important points from Halliday and Hassan’s explanation above that reiteration can be categorized into four forms. They are same word, a synonym or near-synonym, a superordinate, and a general word. This theory will be writer’s principal theory to analyze writer’s data in this research.

a. Repetition or Same Word

Repetition is the simplest form of lexical cohesion. In repetition, the same reference is repeated over and over again throughout the whole 13 Guy Cook, Discourse Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1989, p. 19. 14 Halliday and Hassan, 1976, Op.cit., pp. 279-280. discourse makes the discourse coherent and, therefore, contributes to the cohesion. Look at the example: John comes to the farewell party in this school. This farewell party is held at 07.00 p.m until 12 p.m. The word farewell party is repeated in that sentence above. Repetition is a way to maintain cohesion between sentences in a discourse. That relationship is formed by repetition of a part of sentence element. Repetition is used to maintain the idea or topic that is discussed, but, too many repetitions in a text can make reader feel bored.

b. Synonym or Near-synonym

Synonymy is generally perceived as the ‘sameness of meaning’. 15 Synonymy are two or more word forms with very closely related meaning. It should be noted that idea of meaning is not necessarily total sameness. Synonyms can be any part of speech e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions, as long as both members of the pair are the same part of speech. More examples of English synonyms are: 1. student and pupil noun 2. buy and purchase verb 3. sick and ill adjective 4. quickly and speedily adverb 5. on and upon preposition 15 Ibid., p. 59. There are dictionaries of synonyms that contain many hundreds of entries, such as 16 : apathetic phlegmatic passive sluggish indifferent pedigree anchestry genealogy descent lineage The words apathetic, phlegmatic, passive, sluggish, indifferent mean “not interested in something”. While the words pedigree, anchestry, genealogy, descent, lineage mean “line of person in a family who lived a long time ago or family history”. Cruse speaks about ‘a scale of synonymity’ in his book Lexical Semantics, which is pointed to by two semantic intuitions: “the first is that certain pairs or groups of lexical items bear a special sort of semantic resemblance to one another. For example, in Dictionary of English Synonyms gives kill as a synonym of murder but, interestingly, not vice versa. The second intuition is that some pairs of synonyms are ‘more synonymous’ than other pairs, e. g. settee and sofa are more synonymous than boundary and frontier.” 17 The writer agrees with Cruse’s opinion that there is a broader conception of the characteristics of intuitions of synonym. The first intuition tells that two or more words may have similar meaning which are often closely related but not always intersubstitutable in sentences. Like the word kill and murder. Kill can be substituted by murder, but an accidental killing can not be substituted by murder. The second intuition explains that synonym has a degree. For example, the word boundaries 16 Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman, Nina Hyams, An Introduction to Language Massachusetts: Thomson Corporation Heinle, 2003, Seventh Edition, p. 181. 17 D.A. Cruse, Lexical Semantics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1986, p. 265. and frontier. According to Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary, boundaries mean “line that marks a limit” 18 , while frontier means “the border between two countries” 19 . So, boundaries is more general than frontier. The other instance, settee that means “sofa”, and sofa means “long comfortable seat”. It can be found that settee and sofa is more synonymous than boundaries and frontier. Palmer is even more straightforward: he maintains that “there are no total synonyms, that no two words have exactly the same meaning” 20 Modestly, there are no synonyms which have exactly the sameness meaning in all contexts or social levels of language because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason: long and extended are only synonyms in one usage and not in others. For example, a long arm is not the same as an extended arm. Synonymy also can be distinguished by special contexts in which one member of a synonymy pair is used, but the other not. For examples, pupil as the aperture in the iris of the eye is not synonymous with student. Similarly, he expired means the same as he died, yet my passport has expired cannot be replaced by my passport has died. Although a pair of synonymy may be similar in terms of style, intensity, and dialect, they still 18 Oxford University, Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary New York: Oxford University Press. 2008, Fourth Edition, p. 46. 19 Ibid., p. 178. 20 F.R. Palmer, Semantics a New Outline Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1976, p. 63. are not necessarily intersubstitutable because they sometimes are different in terms of connotation.

c. Superordinate

Superordinate or hypernyms are words that refer to broad categories or general concepts. The word supposed to be more general and to include the meanings of the others is called superordinate; and the other, the more particular instances included within it is called its subordinate term or hyponymy. A superordinate can have many hyponyms. Hyponymy is the relationship between each lower term and the higher term superordinate. For examples, the sense of animal is included in the sense of lion. Hyponymy is not restricted to objects, abstract concepts, or nouns. It can be identified in many other areas of the lexicon. Examples, the verb cook has many hyponyms; roast, boil, fry, grill, bake, etc. In a lexical field, hyponymy may exist at more than one level. A word may have both a hyponym and a superordinate term. For example, Word: Living as superordinate has many hyponyms: bird, insects, animal, and word bird from above can be hypernym, as follow: Hypernym : bird Hyponyms : sparrow, hawk, crow, fowl. Charles F. Meyer also gives his opinion about hyponyms. He thinks that “hyponymy is a relation in which the meaning of a word is included in the meaning of a more general word”. 21 In some cases, the hyponymy may become superordinate term, when they contain more specific terms 22 . Some examples in English are: 1. Superordinate : Walk Hyponymys : March, Amble, Stroll, Tramp, Stride. 2. Superordinate : Animal Hyponymys : Mammal, Reptile. 3. Superordinate : Mammal Hyponymys : Rodent, Ruminant. 4. Superordinate : Rodent Hyponymys : Mouse, Rat, Porcupine. 5. Superordinate : Living Hyponymys : Creature, Plant. 6. Superordinate : Creature Hyponymys : Animal, Insect. For the writer, superordinate terms play an important role in cohesion by providing writers with a more explicit means than would be possible using only pronouns it, they, this, these, those for linking their ideas either back to earlier pieces of text, or forward to upcoming information. While for the reader, superordinate terms tell the reader what to expect when they occur before an idea. In this fuction, superordinate 21 Charles F. Meyer, Introducing English Linguistics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 174. 22 Muhammad Farkhan, An Introduction to Linguistics, Jakarta: Lembaga Penelitian UIN Jakarta dengan UIN Jakarta Press, 2006, p. 109. terms serve as the class in definitions, and describe the items and examples presented in lists.

d. General Word

The last form of lexical cohesion that will cover here is the general word. It can be general nouns, as in ‘thing’, ‘stuff’, ‘place’, ‘person’, ‘woman’ and ‘man’, or general verbs, as in ‘do’ and ‘happen’. In a way, the general word is a higher level superordinate: it is the umbrella term that can cover almost everything. This case also has been discussed by Halliday and Hassan who make classes of general word in their book: “The class of general noun is a small set of nouns having generalized reference within the major noun classes, those such as ‘human noun’, ‘place noun’, ‘fact noun’, and the like. Examples are: people, person, man, woman, child, boy, girl [human] creature [non-human animate] thing, object [inanimate concrete count] stuff [inanimate concrete mass] business, affair, matter [inanimate abstract] move [action] place [place] questions, idea [fact]” 23 23 Halliday and Hassan, Cohesion in English London: Longman Group Limited. 1976, p. 274. The occurrence of general word is used to refers back to a noun phrase, a verb, and refers back to a clause. They require recourse to another item that must be located earlier within the same text. No matter in English or the other language “general” item plays a significant role in making a text integrated as a whole.

2. Collocation

The term collocation will be used to refer to sequences of lexical items which habitually co-occur, but which are nonetheles fully transparent in the sense that each lexical constituent is also a semantic constituent. 24 Fine weather, torrential rain, light drizzle, high winds are examples of collocations. Gorys Keraf in his book, Diksi dan Gaya Bahasa, said that “kolokasi collocation adalah lingkungan leksikal dimana sebuah kata dapat muncul”. 25 For example, the word “gelap” with “malam” is collocation. The word “gelap” with word “baik” or “jahat” are not collocation. Because of that, there is a construction “malam gelap”. Most of people know which words tend to occur with other words. One way people seem to organize their language of words is simply on the basis of collocation, or frequently occuring together. 26 24 D.A. Cruse, Lexical Semantics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1986, p. 40 25 Gorys Keraf, Diksi dan Gaya Bahasa Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 1990, p. 33. 26 George Yule, The Study of Language Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp. 121- 122.

E. Cohesiveness Degree

The kinds of cohesion above grammatical and lexical cohesion also can be called cohesion devices. Cohesion devices take an important role to make cohesiveness in a text. Because of the occurrences of cohesion devices, cohesiveness in a text is different from the other text, so the cohesiveness degree in each text is also different. In the cohesiveness degree, there should be the relationship between grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion as Halliday and Hassan said: cohesion is the use of grammatical and lexical means to achieve connected text, either spoken or written. It is also mentioned in the previous discussion that cohesion is expressed partly through the grammar and partly through the vocabulary. It means, the degree of cohesiveness depends on the relationship tightness between the two devices, namely grammatical device and lexical device. 25

CHAPTER III RESEARCH FINDINGS

A. Data Description

In this chapter, the writer analyzes cohesion of three texts on editor’s note in U.S News and World Report Magazine. In the first text, the writer finds 2 items of substitution, 46 items of reference, 28 items of conjunction. It also has many reiteration forms. There are 3 items of repetition, 1 item of superordinate or hypernym, 2 items of general word, and 2 items of collocation. The first text doesn’t have any pairs of ellipsis and synonym. The second and third text don’t have any ellipsis form and have all of the kinds of lexical cohesion. The second text has substitution that appear twice, reference that appear 74 times, and conjunction that appear 25 times. It also has 6 repetition items, 1 pair of synonym, 1 superordinate, 2 general word items, and 1 collocation item. While the third has 3 items of repetition, 5 pairs of synonym, 2 items of general word, and 1 item of collocation. For the grammatical cohesion, the third text has 1 item of substitution, 46 items of reference, and 16 items of conjunction. For the complete data, it can be read in the table below: Text 1: Navigating the World of Work Kind of Grammatical Cohesion The Items Substitution one, don’t like.