Parkari Noun Phrases and Scenarios

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11. Parkari Noun Phrases and Scenarios

Since scenarios affect the grammatical structure of the Noun Phrase in Greek, this chapter explores how scenarios affect the Noun Phrase in Parkari. I give evidence that Parkari uses a specific salience marker with nouns that encode major Discourse-new participants, whereas the noun alone is used for minor Discourse-new participants, Discourse-old participants, and Discourse-new participants which belong as Hearer-old items in an open scenario. Thus, as in Greek, the grammatical form used for reference is affected by both the distinction between Hearer-new and Hearer-old information, and the marking of salience.

11.1. Discourse-new and Discourse-old referents

In the Noun Phrase Parkari uses different grammatical encoding for referents depending on whether they are Discourse-new or Discourse-old.

11.1.1. Discourse-new major participants are marked by “one” with the noun

In Parkari, Discourse-new major participants information status type 1 NEW are introduced by a noun qualified by “one” or “two”, etc.. Such participants are both Discourse-new and Hearer-new. My hypothesis is that this special marking signifies that those participants are “salient” within the discourse. Typically this salience marking of participants occurs at the start of a narrative, for example relevant noun phrases bolded: “Michael” 1 ɦek sokɾ-o ɦət-o. one child-G was-G Once there was a boy. “The lame man and the blind man” 1 ɦek-ɑ ɠom mẽ ɦek məɖʰ-o ɦət-o ən ɦek ɦət-o õdʰ-o. one-G town in one lame-G was-G and one was-G blind-G In a certain town there lived a lame man and a blind man. A further example comes from the text “Mongoose”, where a pet mongoose saves a baby from a snake, but is killed when found with blood on its mouth, on the assumption that it has killed the baby. Note how all Discourse-new major participants are referred to by a noun with ɦek ‘one’. This device cues the audience to significant Discourse-new information, which must be stored in the new mental scenario of “this story”, for example relevant noun phrases bolded, pronouns underlined: “Mongoose” 1 Friends, it’s like this. 2 In a certain town there was a house. 3 And that house-holder’s name was Premo. 11. Parkari Noun Phrases and Scenarios 289 4 p ɾem-ɑ ɾ-o sokɾ-o ɦek konʤ̑i ɦət-o. Preem-G of-G child-G one Konji was-G Premo’s son was one Konji. 5 One day he went in order to graze his livestock 6 ən u-ɛ ɦek noɭi-o zʰɑl-i-o and that-erg one mongoose-G grasp-pf-G and he caught a mongoose 19 And several days later 20 u- ɑ ɾ-o bɦɑi ɦek non-o zələm-i-o, that-G of-G brother one small-G be.born-pf-G his baby brother was born, 25 After a little while 26 ɦek kɑɭ-o ħɑp u-ɑ ɡʰəɾ mẽ ɑ-i-o, one black-G snake that-G house in come-pf-G a cobra came into the house, A seemingly surprising example of this Hearer-new salient marking occurs at the end of the narrative of “Michael”, immediately before the moral: 18 p əsɛ mɑekəl ɦek ʈʰɑuk-o ʋɪʃʋɑʃi tʰ-e ɠ-i-o. then Michael one good-G Christian become-nonf went-pf-G Then Michael became a good Christian. One might argue that Michael is not Discourse-new since he is the main character of the story. However, it is not Michael, but the “good Christian”, which is new and significant. So far, Michael has been a “bad” Christian, not obeying the teaching he claims to follow. A parallel example comes in the “Mongoose” text, where the mother realizes that the mongoose she has just killed had not murdered her son: 56 m ẽ ɦek bedʰoɦi beɡʊnɑɦ nɛ mɑɾ-e nokʰ-i-o. I.erg one innocent sinless to kill-nonf result-pf-G I have killed an innocent sinless creature. Again, the referent, the mongoose, is Hearer-old for the mother, but until this point she has considered it “guilty sinful”. She has just realized that the mongoose is a “different character” from what she had thought. Perhaps it is overstretching the point to think of these referents as “Discourse-new”, but undoubtedly the word ɦek ‘one’ is being used here to mark salience, since these lines are each focal in the conclusion of the story. 290 Section 3: Scenarios and Parkari

11.1.2. Discourse-new significant places and times are marked by “one” with the noun

In Parkari, just as Discourse-new major participants are marked salient, so Discourse-new significant places and times information status type 1 NEW are similarly marked salient by the use of ɦek ‘one’ with a noun, for example.

11.1.2.1. Place

“The lame man and the blind man” 1 ɦek-ɑ ɠom mẽ ɦek məɖʰ-o ɦət-o ən ɦek ɦət-o õdʰ-o. one-G town in one lame-G was-G and one was-G blind-G In a certain town there lived a lame man and a blind man. In this text see appendix O , this town is significant as it provides a place for the setting of the story. By opening up the “town” scenario with its prototypical contents, specific details of the story, such as the place of the robbery implicit in lines 3 and 10 as “some- where in town”, the police station line 30, and policemen line 32, become expected noncontroversial items and can thus be introduced into the text as Hearer-old. “Mongoose” 2 ɦek ɠom mẽ ɦek ɡʰəɾ ɦət-o. one town in one house was-G In a certain town there was a house. This house is significant as the setting of the story. The boy who caught the mongoose lived here, and here the snake attacked his brother: 26 ɦek kɑɭ-o ħɑp u-ɑ ɡʰəɾ mẽ ɑ-i-o, one black-G snake that-G house in come-pf-G a cobra came into the house, This pattern of “one” with the noun is also used to mark significant places in the middle of the narrative, for example:. “Sparrow” 45 m əsɾ-õ nɛ k-ɛ-ɦ, mosquito-P to say-P-pres He says to the mosquitoes, ɦɑl-o ɦek-ɑ mɑɠ ɦɑtʰi ubʰ-o, k-ɛ-ɦ. come.along-G one-G place elephant stand-G say-P-pres “Come along, there’s an elephant standing over there.” In this story, the sparrow loses a grain of rice down a crack in a log and then tries to get various characters to help him retrieve it, but to no avail. Here in line 45, this “one place”, where the elephant is, provides the starting point for the whole series of the sparrow’s problems to be solved, one by one. The place per se is not particularly significant, but the use of “one” marks this whole new event as crucially significant in the discourse. 11. Parkari Noun Phrases and Scenarios 291 Similarly: “The lame man and the blind man” 16 “ ɦek dʰən pəɽ-əi-ɦ” k-ɛ-ɦ “ok-õ ɾ-əi.” one pile fall-G-pres say-P-pres stem-G of-G There is a pile of stalks lying there. This place is significant, both in the direct speech and in the discourse, as the place where the main characters hide with their stolen loot. Compare line 44 “one tree” where “one snake” appears.

11.1.2.2. Time

The phrase “one day” signifies a major event will follow, for example: “Michael” 8 ɦek ɗi ɓɑɓu i-ɑ nɛ zʰɑl-e lidʰ-o one day inspector this-G to grasp-nonf took-G One day the inspector caught hold of him. Here “one day” not only marks the beginning of a new paragraph, where the action starts, but is significant at discourse level, because the events which occurred then changed the course of Michael’s life, and that is what the story is about. “Mongoose” 5 ɦek ɗi u ɠ-i-o ɑpɾ-ɑ mɑl sɑɾ-i-ɑ ħɑɾu one day he went-pf-G own-G livestock graze-pf-G for One day he went in order to graze his livestock 6 and he caught a mongoose Again “one day” marks the time setting of a significant event at discourse level, the finding of the mongoose, the central character of the story. The adjective ɦek ‘one’ is never used for Hearer-old information, except to contrast or compare two or more items one with another e.g. Parkari texts 3:22–23, 4:31–32, 7:37, and 7:64; see appendix O . This supports the hypothesis that it is indeed a salience marker for significant Discourse-new and Hearer-new participants.

11.1.3. Discourse-new props and minor characters are marked with noun alone

Whereas salient Discourse-new items are introduced by “one” with a noun, as a NEW information marker, Discourse-new props i.e. inanimate participants are regularly introduced by noun alone, for example: “Sparrow” 1 ɦek səkl-o ɦət-o. one sparrow-G was-G Once there was a sparrow. 292 Section 3: Scenarios and Parkari 2 u l ɑ-i-o sokʰ-o, u-ɑ nɛ zəɽ-i-o. he fetch-pf-G rice.grain-G he-G to find-pf-G He fetched a grain of rice, he found it. 3 p əɦ ʈʰũʈʰ-ɑ mɑ̃ɦ ɓeʈʰ-o. then log-G on sat-G Then he sat on a log. Note that the sparrow, as main character, is introduced by “one”, whereas the grain of rice and the log are not. The grain of rice and the log are significant, reappearing in the conclusion, line 66: So the carpenter went having taken his axe … chopped up the log and gave the grain of rice to the sparrow. However, as props inanimate participants, they are not given salient NEW marking. They might perhaps be regarded as prototypical items in the “sparrow” scenario KNOWN inferrable, but they are clearly not KNOWN as specific individual referents, i.e. they refer to previously unidentified items “a grain of rice” and “a log” rather than specific identifiable items “the grain of rice” and “the log”. Similarly, Discourse-new minor characters are regularly introduced by noun alone, without the salience marking “one”, for example: “Sparrow” 11 to ɠ-i-o ʋɑɖʰ-ɑ kən. so went-pf-G carpenter-G at So he went to the carpenter. Possibly the minor characters in this story are introduced as KNOWN inferrable items in the “sparrow” scenario. Certainly “carpenter” here means “the local carpenter” not just “a carpenter”. Compare lines 16, 19, 21, 25, 28, 31, 35, 39, 41, and 44, where all but the last participants, “mosquitoes”, are introduced as vocatives in direct speech, suggesting they are assumed to be prototypically present.

11.1.4. Discourse-old items are marked with noun, pronoun, or zero

As we have already seen, significant Discourse-new items are introduced by “one” plus noun shown bolded below. In contrast, Discourse-old participants information status type 3b GIVEN textual-current, and 3c GIVEN textual-displaced are never referred to in that way, but may be referred to using the noun alone, or deictic plus noun under- lined below. Discourse-old participants which are currently focal i.e. 3b GIVEN textual- current may also be referred to by third person pronoun underlined, or by zero anaphora marked by , for example: “Michael” 1 ɦek sokɾ-o ɦət-o. one child-G was-G Once there was a boy. 11. Parkari Noun Phrases and Scenarios 293 2 u- ɑ ɾ-o nom ɦət-o mɑekəl. that-G of-G name was-G Michael His name was Michael. 3 e sok ɾ-o tɑɾik tɑɾik ɪskul moẽ bʰəɳ-ʋ-ɑ zɑ-t-o. this child-G daily daily school in study-inf-G go-impf-G This boy used to go every day to study in school. 4 p əɳ ɾel ɠɑi mẽ səɽ-en ɪskul zɑ-t-o. but rail cart-G in climb-nonf school go-impf-G But he used to go to school on the train. “The lame man and the blind man” 1 ɦek-ɑ ɠom mẽ ɦek məɖʰ-o ɦət-o ən ɦek ɦət-o õdʰ-o. one-G town in one lame-G was-G and one was-G blind-G In a certain town there lived a lame man and a blind man. 2 m əɖʰ-o õdʰ-ɑ nɛ k-e-ɦ “ɑpe soɾ-əi kəɾ-ʋ-ɑ ɦɑl-ʃ-õ”. lame-G blind-G to say-P-pres we.incl theft-G do-inf-G go.along-fut-P The lame man says to the blind man “Let’s go and steal something”. 3 tõ “t ũ nɛ ketʰ-ɛ ħuz-ɑ-ɛ-ɦ ki?” k-ɛ-ɦ. sonew subj yous to where-loc know-pass-P-pres question say-P-pres So the blind man says “Do you know where something is then”? In line 3 the subject is different from line 2, yet expressed as zero anaphora. This is not ambiguous since tõ ‘so’ functions as a switch reference marker, showing a change in subject from the previous clause.

11.2. Noun alone is used for all Hearer-old referents

It has been shown above that Discourse-new major characters are typically intro- duced with the formula “one” plus noun. In contrast Discourse-old nouns are referred to by a noun or deictic plus noun, or, where focal, by a pronoun or zero anaphora. However, Discourse-new items may be introduced by single nouns, using the same marking as for Discourse-old items, where they belong in a currently open or accessible scenario. This indicates that grammatical choice is based not on the distinction between Discourse-new and discourse old, but between Hearer-new and Hearer-old.

11.2.1. Noun alone for Discourse-new

KNOWN inferrable items Discourse-new items of the category KNOWN inferrable are introduced by a noun alone, as shown below. 294 Section 3: Scenarios and Parkari

11.2.1.1. Discourse-new major characters, If

KNOWN inferrable, are marked by noun alone Sometimes Discourse-new major characters are introduced using the typical Discourse-old marking of noun alone. This indicates that this Discourse-new character is regarded as Hearer-old, since he or she belongs prototypically in an already open scenario, for example relevant noun bolded: “Michael” 4 But he used to go to school on the train. 5 But he always used to travel without paying his fare. 6 ən zəeõ ɓɑɓu ʈikeʈ zo-ʋ-ɑ ɑʋ-t-o and when inspector ticket see-inf-G come-impf-G And when the inspector used to come to check the tickets, The “ticket inspector” is a major character in this story, being the one who challenges Michael to live up to the tenets of his faith. Yet he is introduced without the Discourse- new marker “one”. This is because line 4 has already opened the “train” scenario, in which the ticket inspector is prototypically present information status type 2b KNOWN inferrable, so he is treated as Hearer-old. His arrival does not need to be heralded by a Discourse-new important character marking, since the audience does not need to make a new scenario entry for him. This individual can be fitted into the existing “ticket inspector” slot of the open “train” scenario. The use of a noun alone to introduce a major character which is KNOWN inferrable is also shown in the “Mongoose” text relevant noun bolded, pronouns underlined: “Mongoose” 9 z əeõ u ɡʰəɾ-e ɑ-i-o, to u-ɑ ɾ-i mɑ̃ kidʰ-o ke when that house-loc come-pf-G then that-G of-G mother said-G that When he came home his mother said The “mother” is a major character in this story, being the one who kills the mongoose, believing it has harmed her child. Indeed, the final section of the story, lines 54–70, almost a quarter of the text, consists of her soliloquy reflecting on the benefits of thought before action. Nevertheless, although she is a major character and Discourse-new, she is introduced with Hearer-old marking, i.e. a noun without “one”. Moreover, she is linked grammatically, by the genitive postposition, to the scenario of which she is a part. “His mother” shows she belongs in the “he” scenario. Since “he” is a child, his mother is prototypically present in his scenario. So in information status terms, “mother” is type 2b KNOWN inferrable. Thus the use of “one” in Parkari marks not Discourse-new, but Hearer-new informa- tion, and Hearer-old information is not determined solely by what has been mentioned in the text, but also by the speaker’s estimate of what is already stored in the hearer’s mental scenarios. 11. Parkari Noun Phrases and Scenarios 295

11.2.1.2. Discourse-new minor characters, If

KNOWN inferrable, are marked by noun alone “The lame man and the blind man” 21 tõ k- ɛ-ɦ “ɠɑ-i ɾ-o ɠɑ-əi l-en ɑʋ-ɛ-ɦ ɾ-i-o so say-P-pres cart-G of-G cart-G take-nonf come-P-pres stay-pf-G d ʰəɳi ɗok-õ ɾ-o” k-ɛ-ɦ. owner stem-G of-G say-P-pres So he says “The owner of the stalks is coming with his cart”. The only significance of this “owner” in the story is that he comes on a cart which the main characters then steal, and so he tells the police. He is grammatically linked to the scenario of “stalks” which are Discourse-old: 17 “There is a pile of millet stalks lying there” he says, “Let us go and hide in that” he says.

11.2.1.3. Discourse-new props, If

KNOWN inferrable, are marked by noun alone Whereas Discourse-new major participants, and significant places and times are introduced with “one” plus noun, Discourse-new props inanimate participants are generally introduced by noun alone, for example: “Michael” 3 e sok ɾ-o tɑɾik tɑɾik ɪskul moẽ bʰəɳ-ʋ-ɑ zɑ-t-o. this child-G daily daily school in study-inf-G go-impf-G This boy used to go every day to study in school. 4 p əɳ ɾel ɠɑ-i mẽ səɽ-en ɪskul zɑ-t-o. but rail cart-G in climb-nonf school go-impf-G But he used to go to school on the train. Here “school” and “train”, although clearly Discourse-new when first mentioned, may well be being treated here as 2b KNOWN inferrable, since they are prototypical elements in the Parkari “environment” scenario, opened by the presence of Michael. For example “school” here does not mean “any school in the world”, but “the local school”. Similarly, “train” does not mean any train, but the train that travels between Michael’s home and the school. By not marking these props with “one”, they are being regarded as prototypically present, noncontroversial items, whose existence at this time and place is not sufficiently unusual to warrant the NEW information encoding. Compare: “Mongoose” 47 u- ɑ ɾ-ɑ mɑtʰ-ɑ mɑ̃ɦ məʈ ɦət-o that-G of-G head-G on waterpot was-G On her head was a waterpot, 296 Section 3: Scenarios and Parkari 48 ən u-ɛ zoɾ ħũ u məʈ u-ɑ noɭi-ɑ mɑ̃ɦ pʰəɠoɭ-i-o and that-erg force from that waterpot that-G mongoose-G on throw-pf-G and she threw that pot hard onto the mongoose. Here the waterpot is certainly important in the story, since it is the item with which the mongoose is killed. Nevertheless, as an inanimate object it remains a mere prop. On the level of the predictability of the plot and the intention of the characters, it is the mother who killed the mongoose. The weapon used is relatively incidental. Again, the waterpot may be regarded as 2b KNOWN inferrable, since lines 22–23 say: “And that boy’s mother went outside to fetch water.” Since Parkari women fetch water in waterpots on their head, “a waterpot” could equally be translated as “her waterpot”, i.e. the waterpot you would expect in this scenario. Once a scenario is explicitly opened, props and participants from that scenario are regularly introduced by noun alone, i.e. as prototypical Hearer-old elements of the open scenario, for example: “Michael” 4 But he used to go to school on the train. 5 p əɳ ɦəmeʃ ʋəɠəɾ bʰɑɽ-ɛ zɑ-t-o. but always without fare-loc go-impf-G But he always used to travel without paying his fare 6 ən zəeõ ɓɑɓu ʈikeʈ zo-ʋ-ɑ ɑʋ-t-o and when inspector ticket see-inf-G come-impf-G And when the inspector used to come to check the tickets, 7 to e sok ɾ-o kɑkus mẽ yɑ to siʈ ɦeʈʰ nɑɦ-e zɑ-t-o then this child-G toilet in or indeed seat under hide-nonf go-impf-G then this boy used to hide in the toilet or under the seat. It is clear that the meaning of these nouns is determined by the “train” scenario: • “Fare” means the train fare, “inspector” the ticket inspector for the train. • “Tickets” means the train tickets. • “Toilet” means the toilet at the end of each railway carriage. • “Seat” means the long bench-like seat in the railway carriage where he was sitting. Similarly, Discourse-new items related to a farming life are introduced in the text “My farmwork” using the Hearer-old pattern of a noun alone, for example: 3 ɡʰəɾ-e ɑʋ-en ʋəɭ-e ɖʰəɠ-ɑ ɦɑkəl-en zɑ-iɦ ɓõdʰ-ʋ-ɑ ʤ̑oɽ-o. house-loc come-nonf again ox-G drive-nonf go-fut.P tie-inf-G ox-team-G After coming home, I will drive the oxen and go to yoke the ox-team. 11. Parkari Noun Phrases and Scenarios 297 In a Parkari context, ploughing is typically done by oxen. The speaker then refers to oxen as Hearer-old, being part of the “farmer” scenario opened up by the real life situation of this discourse, where I, knowing the speaker and his occupation, asked him about his daily work. Note “oxen” does not refer to any old oxen, but to the farmer’s own pair of oxen which he keeps for ploughing. Again such items are information status type 2b KNOWN inferrable. Compare: 12 po ɳi sɑɗ-en bʰəɾ-ɑ-en ʋəɭ-e ʋɑʈəɾ nɛ bʰə̃dʰ kəɾ-õ-ɦ. water leave-nonf fill-pass-nonf again channel to closed do-P-pres After letting in the water, after it has filled, then I close the channel. In a Parkari context, in the irrigated area where this discourse took place, all crops are irrigated by an elaborate system of huge canals feeding into smaller canals, feeding into irrigation channels alongside the fields. Thus, although “channel” is here Discourse-new it is grammaticalized as Hearer-old as part of the “irrigation” scenario. In context, this does not mean “a channel” but “the channel which is alongside my fields.”

11.2.2. Noun alone for Discourse-new

KNOWN unused items Similarly, a Discourse-new item of the category 2a KNOWN unused is treated as Hearer-old, since it is prototypically part of all human experience, regardless of time, place, and culture, for example: “My farmwork” 1 ɦũ ħəʋɑɾ ɾ-o ʋel-o uʈʰ-en I morning of-G early-G get.up-nonf Having got up early in the morning Here “morning” means the morning of the given day being spoken about. It is not defined with reference to any open textual or contextual scenario, other than the “real world” scenario, where mornings happen. Similarly: “The lame man and the blind man” 9 tõ k- ɛ-ɦ ɦəʋɛ ɑpe ɾɑt pəɽ-əi, təeõ k-ɛ-ɦ so say-P-pres now we.incl night fall-G then say-P-pres So he says “Now, when night falls, 9b then we will go stealing”. 11b ɗi uɠ-i-o pəɾ-o, ħəʋɑɾ tʰ-i-o pəɾ-o day rise-pf-G result-G morning become-pf-G result-G the sun rose, morning came N.B. The one Parkari word is used for both day and sun.

11.2.3. Noun alone for Discourse-new

GIVEN situational items Discourse-new items belonging to the 3a GIVEN situational category are also Hearer-old and may be referred to by a noun, for example: 298 Section 3: Scenarios and Parkari “The lame man and the blind man” 66 ʋɑɾtɑ kʰətəm tɦ-əi-ɦ story finish become-G-pres That’s the end of the story. Here “story” is coreferential with lines 1–65. However, the noun “story” does not refer back to any specific words in the text 3b GIVEN textual-current or 3c GIVEN textual- displaced, but rather refers to “what I have just said and you have just heard” 3a GIVEN situational. Similarly, Discourse-new items belonging to the 3a GIVEN situational category may be referred to by a deictic with a noun, for example: “The lame man and the blind man” 5 The blind man says “We won’t go stealing just like that. 6 “õ mel ɑʋɽ-əi ɓol-ɛ-ɦ ɾ-əi, utʰ-ɛ zɑ-en” k-ɛ-ɦ that bird.type-G sing-P-pres stay-G there-loc go-nonf say-P-pres Go over there where that bird is singing”. Here the melavri bird is not in the narrative co-text, nor was it in the co-text of the supposed conversation between the lame man and the blind man, but the narrator presents the bird as being in the original situational context of the speaker and hearer, i.e. a bird that the speaker and hearer could hear at the time. As noted above, Discourse-old items may be referred to not only by noun phrases, but by pronouns and zero anaphora. However, Discourse-new items of types 2a KNOWN unused and 2b KNOWN inferrable are typically introduced by a noun. This is because pronouns and zero anaphora are used for items already focal in the hearer’s consciousness, and, by definition, a Discourse-new item is typically not already focal.

11.2.4. Pronoun or zero marking for Discourse-new

GIVEN situational items We have seen above that pronouns and zero anaphora may be used for items which are GIVEN, i.e. focal in the hearer’s consciousness. Items of types 3b GIVEN textual- current and 3c GIVEN textual-current refer back to items in the text, so they are Discourse-old by definition. Hence, the only Discourse-new items which can normally be focal belong to the category 3a GIVEN situational. Someone or something in the real life situation becomes focal or GIVEN due to its presence, arrival, sound, or smell, etc. In such cases pronouns or zero anaphora can be used, e.g. “What’s that?” or “Fantastic” with reference to a sound, sight, or scent, not previously mentioned but part of the perceptual environment of speaker and audience. First and second person pronouns are particularly common for 3a GIVEN situational information, often occurring at the beginning of a text referring to the characters present, or at the end, introducing a moral, for example pronouns bold, is zero anaphora: 11. Parkari Noun Phrases and Scenarios 299 “My farmwork” 1 ɦũ ħəʋɑɾ ɾ-o ʋel-o uʈʰ-en I morning of-G early-G get.up-nonf Having got up early in the morning, I … “Michael” 19 əm-õ ɓədʰ-õ nɛ kʰəp-ɛ ke us-G all-G to must-P that We should all 20 give up our bad deeds and do good deeds, “Breadpan” 1 z əeõ ɦɑe tɑʋɽ-o sɑɽ-o when this breadpan-G raise-P When you put this breadpan onto the fire, 2 t əeõ pəsɛ ʤ̑eʋõ nɛ zõ ʃomu nɛ ħɑɗ kəɾ-iɑ. then then Jevon to or Shomu to call do-fut.impv then[you] give Jevon or Shomu a call. The second person plural reference in “Breadpan” lines 1 and 2 are marked by the person suffix on the verb, with no pronoun, since the I-you relationship in communication is always highly focal. However, the third person reference in line 2 is with proper nouns, otherwise the referents could not be identified. An example of a third person pronoun for 3a GIVEN situational information, comes at the very end of the “Mongoose” text where the pronoun refers to the whole story which has just been related 3a GIVEN situational, not to any item referred to in the text itself, for example: 71 ɦɑe s-ɛ ɑz ɾ-əi ʋɑɾtɑ. thisnear be-P today of-G story This is today’s story. Thus, although Parkari has neither definite nor indefinite article, it marks referents differently according to information status, which depends on culturally influenced scenarios. Significant Discourse-new items, which are both Hearer-new and salient, it treats as NEW , and marks by “one” plus noun. KNOWN items, whether KNOWN inferrable or KNOWN unused, are referred to by a noun alone. GIVEN items can also be referred to by noun alone, but GIVEN items which are highly focal, i.e. textual-current or situational, are regularly referred to by pronoun or zero anaphora.

11.3. Noun for GIVEN referents marks salience

The choice of nouns as opposed to pronouns and zero anaphora for GIVEN items is also significant. Throughout the “Michael” text, the same character, Michael, is focal. Once introduced in line 1 by the Discourse-new major character formula, he remains GIVEN textual-current throughout. Yet he is referred to in different ways, for example Discourse-new information is bolded, Discourse-old is underlined, is zero anaphora: 300 Section 3: Scenarios and Parkari “Michael” 1 ɦek sokɾ-o ɦət-o. one child-G was-G Once there was a boy. 2 u- ɑ ɾ-o nom ɦət-o mɑekəl. that-G of-G name was-G Michael His name was Michael. 3 e sok ɾ-o tɑɾik tɑɾik ɪskul moẽ bʰəɳ-ʋ-ɑ zɑ-t-o. this child-G daily daily school in study-inf-G go—impf-G This boy used to go every day to study in school. 4 p əɳ ɾel ɠɑ-i mẽ səɽ-en ɪskul zɑ-t-o. but rail cart-G in climb-nonf school go-impf-G But he used to go to school on the train. 5 p əɳ ɦəmeʃ ʋəɠəɾ bʰɑɽ-ɛ zɑ-t-o. but always without fare-loc go-impf-G But he always used to travel without paying his fare. 6 ‘And when the inspector used to come to check the tickets,’ 7 to e sok ɾ-o kɑkus mẽ yɑ to siʈ ɦeʈʰ nɑɦ-e zɑ-t-o. then this child-G toilet in or indeed seat under hide-nonf go-impf-G then this boy used to hide in the toilet or under the seat. 8 ɦek ɗi ɓɑɓu i-ɑ nɛ zʰɑl-e lidʰ-o. one day inspector this-G to grasp-nonf took-G One day the inspector caught hold of him. 9 z əeõ i-ɑ ɾ-ɑ ɠũz-ɑ zo-i-ɑ, when this-G of-G pocket-G see-pf-G When he checked his pockets 10 to i- ɑ ɾ-ɑ ɠũz-ɑ mẽ sənɑkʰti kɑɾɖʰ zəɽ-i-o then this-G of-G pocket-G in identity card find-pf-G he found his Identity Card in his pocket. 11 ən kɑɾɖʰ mɑ̃ɦ ləkʰ-əl ɦət-o mɑekəl ʋɪʃʋɑʃi. and card on write-ppt was-G Michael Christian and on the card was written “Michael Christian”. 12 t əeõ ɓɑɓu mɑekəl nɛ kidʰ-o then inspector Michael to said-G Then the inspector said to Michael 11. Parkari Noun Phrases and Scenarios 301 13 “t ũ ʋɪʃʋɑʃi tʰ-en ɠələt kom kəɾ-ɛ-ɦ. yous Christian become-nonf wrong work do-P-pres “You have become a Christian, but do what’s wrong. 14 Christian people don’t behave like this. 15 to k əm ɦeɽ-ɑ ɠələt kom kəɾ-ɛ-ɦ ɾ-i-o.” soresult why like.this-G wrong work do-P-pres stay-pf-G So why are you doing wrong like this?” 16 t əeõ i-ɑ sokɾ-ɑ nɛ ɡʰəɳ-əi ʃəɾəm ɑʋ-əi, then this-G child-G to much-G shame come-G Then this boy became very ashamed, 17 ən lɑɗ͡ʒ-e məɾ-i-o. and embarrassment-loc die-pf-G and became very embarrassed. 18 p əsɛ mɑekəl ɦek ʈʰɑuk-o ʋɪʃʋɑʃi tʰ-e ɠ-i-o then Michael one good-G Christian become-nonf went-pf-G Then Michael became a good Christian. 19 We should all 20 give up our bad deeds and do good deeds, 21 z əm ɦɑe sokɾ-o ʈʰɑuk-o ʋɪʃʋɑʃi tʰ-e ɠ-i-o. just.as thisnear child-G good-G Christian become-nonf went-pf-G just as this boy became a good Christian. References to Michael by name are in line 2 the introduction, lines 11 and 12 the conflict, and line 18 the resolution. In lines 11, 12–15, and 18 the name Michael is explicitly linked to being a Christian, and this is foreshadowed by his being named in 2, since this name, in the Pakistani context, clearly indicates his socioreligious background, upon which the plot turns. References to Michael as “boy” are in line 1 “one boy” the introduction of the main character, lines 3 and 7 “this boy” at the beginning and end of the setting giving his typical behaviour, line 16 “this boy” showing his reaction to being challenged, and line 21 “this boy”—with a different anaphoric marker—in the last line of the text, as someone we should imitate. In other words, the use of a noun phrase, rather than a pronoun or zero anaphora, to refer to the main character of a story appears to be marked, indicating a discourse bound- ary or significant event. Thus, as posited for New Testament Greek, Parkari appears to mark salient Discourse-old items differently from those which are merely Discourse-old and focal. Use of a noun phrase to mark Discourse-old items as salient is clearly seen in the story “Sparrow”. Here a sparrow finds a grain of rice, loses it in the crack of a log, and 302 Section 3: Scenarios and Parkari then seeks the help of numerous characters in order to get it back. The sparrow is the central character throughout, but is only mentioned by a noun three times: • Line 1 the introduction • Line 44 the turning point of the plot • Line 66 the resolution, and last line of the story proper Elsewhere the sparrow is referred to by a pronoun as in line 2, or more commonly zero anaphora as in line 3, for example: 1 ɦek səkl-o ɦət-o. one sparrow-G was-G Once there was a sparrow. 2 u l ɑ-i-o sokʰ-o, u-ɑ nɛ zəɽ-i-o. he fetch-pf-G rice.grain-G he-G to find-pf-G He fetched a grain of rice, he found it. 3 p əɦ ʈʰũʈʰ-ɑ mɑ̃ɦ ɓeʈʰ-o then log-G on sat-G Then he sat on a log 44 ɦəʋɛ səkl-o utʰ-ɛ ubʰ-en ʋəɭ-e ɠ-i-o məsəɾ-õ nɛ teɽ-ʋ-ɑ now sparrow-G there-P stand-nonf again went-pf-G mosquito-P to fetch-inf-G Now the sparrow stood there, then went off to bring the mosquitoes. 66 So the carpenter went having taken his axe, chopped up the log, ən sokʰ-o u-ɑ nɛ səkl-ɑ nɛ ɗidʰ-o pəɾ-o. and rice.grain-G he-G to sparrow-G to gave-G result-G and gave the grain of rice to the sparrow. 67 And that’s the end of the story. Using nouns for Discourse-old main characters to mark salience is consistent with scenario theory. Only minimal marking is required to refer to Hearer-old items in an open scenario, hence the frequent use of pronouns and zero anaphora. Use of fuller encoding, such as a noun or deictic plus noun is, therefore, marked. Relevance Theory Sperber and Wilson 1986 holds the twin maxims “the greater the contextual effects, the greater the relevance” and “the smaller the processing effort, the greater the relevance”. Thus, by choosing any form of reference other than the normal or minimal form required, the speaker is deliberately increasing the “processing effort” and hence promising more “contextual effects”, i.e. some extra element of meaning with significance for the hearer. In Parkari, use of a noun phrase where a pronoun or zero anaphora would suffice for reference, gives the added “contextual effects” that this section of text is significant at higher levels of discourse, i.e. important to the plot in a narrative. This parallels the use of anarthrous nouns for Hearer-old items in New Testament Greek. The lack of the Greek article for Hearer-old referents is statistically unusual, so 11. Parkari Noun Phrases and Scenarios 303 promises extra “contextual effects” in terms of the significance of the particular referent or section of text at higher levels of discourse.

11.4. Chapter summary

The Noun Phrase in Parkari, as in Greek, is affected by two factors: whether the speaker judges the referent to be Hearer-old, and whether the speaker wishes to mark the referent as salient. Parkari uses the salience marker ɦek ‘one’ with nouns that encode major Discourse-new participants, places, or times, but uses the noun alone to refer to minor Discourse-new participants, Discourse-old participants, and Discourse-new participants which belong as Hearer-old items in an open scenario. Items which are already highly focal in the hearer’s consciousness, i.e. GIVEN textual-current or GIVEN situational, are regularly referred to by pronoun or zero anaphora. When these highly focal items are referred to by a noun with or without an anaphoric demonstrative adjective then they are being marked as salient, and this indicates the beginning of a significant event in the discourse. 304

12. Parkari Hearer-Old Markers and Scenarios