Types of Speech Acts

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2.1.3 Public Speaking

Nowadays, public speaking whether we realize it or not becomes a skill that is commonly used in doing communication with other people. According to Coopman and Lull 2009, “We use public speaking skill every day, although not usually in the formal way most people associate with speaking in public” p. 3. You answer question in class, participate in meetings at work, presentations that you present during your study, tell classmates about some experience are some examples of how public speaking is applied in our daily life. When we speak in front of public, we try to transfer or share our ideas to people. Lucas 2009 defines public speaking in three ways, “a way of making your ideas public, a way of sharing them with other people, and a way of influencing other people” p. 4. Influencing other people becomes a goal in public speaking because the speaker will expect the audience to believe on his or her ideas and do something about it. In a formal way, public speaking is done in front of public. It means that there are numbers of people that listen to the speech. It has also limited time to do the speech. Coopman and Lull 2009 define public speaking as “a situation in which an individual speaks to a group of people, assuming responsibility for speaking for a defined length of time” p. 4. Wilson, Arnold, Wertheimer 1990 propose three types of speech based on its purpose: “speech to inform”, “speech to entertain”, and “speech to persuade” p. 30. They explains that speech to inform aims to “let the audiences or listeners 20 know about the information” p. 30. Speech to entertain aims to “entertain the audience or the listeners” p. 30. Speech to persuade aims to “persuade or influence the audience to do something or believe in something” p. 30. In designing and delivering effective public speaking, the speaker needs to consider many things. In 2012, Wrench, Goding, Johnson, and Attias, define what public speaking is and what need to be involved to create effective public speaking: Public speaking is the process of designing and delivering a message to an audience. Effective public speaking involves understanding your audience and speaking goals, choosing elements for the speech that will engage your audience with your topic, and delivering your message skillfully. Good public speakers understand that they must plan, organize, and revise their material in order to develop an effective speech p. 8 Coopman and Lull 2009 conclude that there are 8 elements interact in public speaking that should be considered in designing and delivering public speaking: sender speaker, message, channel, receiver audience, noise, feedback, context, and environment p. 16 1. Speaker In public speaking, speaker is the one who deliver the speech. Coopman and Lull 2009 define speaker as “The person who assumes the primary responsibility for conveying a message in a public communication context” p. 16. The speaker holds a central role as initiator and has the primary responsibility for talking. 21 2. Message In public speaking, the speaker delivers a message. Coopman and Lull 2009 describe message as “The words and nonverbal cues a speaker uses to convey ideas, feelings and thoughts” p. 16. The message can be a form of words verbal communication and also how the speaker presents those words in his or her speech nonverbal communication. 3. Channel In delivering the speech, sometime the speaker does not only deliver the speech in person but also using some media such as print and electronic. It is called channel. Coopman and Lull 2009 define channel as “a mode or medium of communication” p. 17. When the speaker delivers the speech, he or she involves multiple channels such as using presentation media, playing a clip or video that relevant to the topic, or providing some handout to the audiences. 4. Audience The speaker delivers a speech to the receiver or audience. Coopman and Lull 2009 define audience as “The intended recipients of a speaker’s message” p. 17. Commonly the speaker delivers the speech to the audience in person. However, nowadays maybe digitally recorder and the audience can be far beyond the speaker. Additionally, they say that public speaking is “audience centered”, which means speaker must “acknowledge their audience’s expectations and situation” p. 4. 22 5. Interference When the speaker delivers a message using speech, sometime there is some interference. It is called noise. Coopman and Lull 2009 describe noise as “Anything that interferes with the understanding of a message” p. 17. It may be internal noise or external noise. Internal noise may be caused by the audience such as daydreaming or thinking about something else that causes the audience doesn’t pay attention to the speech. External noise may be caused by external factor around such as other people talking or from the cell phone. 6. Feedback In public speaking, it is also possible that the audience gives feedback to the speaker. Coopman and Lull 2009, feedback is “A response from the audience to a speech” p. 17. In public speaking Nods, smiles, shaking head, frown, applause is the way the audience responds the speech. 7. Context In delivering a speech the speaker needs to be the context where the interaction takes place. Coopman and Lull 2009 mention that context includes “the physical setting for the speech, such as auditorium, classroom, museum, conference room, public places” p. 18. Each context will influence the way message is delivered to the audience. 23 8. Environment Coopmand and Lull 2009 says that environment refers to “all external that influence a public speaking event” p. 18. For example, events occurring at or near the time when the speech is delivered may be influence the audience’s react

2.2 The Finding and Discussion

This section is to show what the researcher finds in the analysis of a speech delivered by Steve Jobs. In the analysis, researcher analyzes what types of speech acts used in the utterances. The analysis also involves what kind of illocutionary forces performed in the utterances. In the analysis, researcher used the classification of speech acts proposed by Yule 1996. Yule 1996 classifies 5 types of speech acts based on the function performed by speech acts: declarative, representative, directive, expressive, and commissive p. 53. However, in the speech analyzed there are only four types of speech acts found: Representative, Directive, Expressive, and Commissive. There is no declarative speech acts found in the speech. The speaker did not use any declarative speech acts because as Yule 1996 said that in using declarative speech acts, the speaker has to have a special institution role, in a specific context. In the speech, Steve Jobs don’t have any special institution role to perform declarative speech acts. Actually, the speech is an opening speech, so that there are no utterances that change the world via his utterances such as status.

2.2.1 Representatives