A speech act analysis of the 2005 Stanford University commencement speech by Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer and PIXAR animation studio.

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ABSTRACT

Darpito, Albertus Joko. 2016. A Speech Act Analysis of the 2005 Stanford University Commencement Speech by Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer and PIXAR Animation Studio. Yogyakarta: English Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.

Public speaking is one form of communications that can be found in society. Whenever a speaker delivers a speech, actually he or she is communicating with the audience because there is a process of transmitting information, idea, or message to the audience. In the process of transmitting, there are many factors that influence the transmitted message. One of the factors is called speech acts. When a speaker produces some utterances, he or she doesn’t only produce grammatical structures and words, but also produces actions through those utterances (speech acts).There are some kinds of function in mind when a speaker forms an utterance, such as describing, requesting, claiming, etc. They are called illocutionary force.

In order to analyze the speech acts, the researcher formulated a question: What are the types of speech acts used by Steve Jobs in the 2005 Stanford University commencement speech? The analysis also includes what kind of illocutionary forces are performed in the utterances.

This study used qualitative research method specifically content and document analysis. There were three main steps done in this study: data gathering or collection, data organizing and data analysis. The data were collected by observing the speech and some related text books. After that the data were organized and analyzed.

In the speech, it was found that based on function performed by speech acts there were only four types of speech acts: representative, expressive, directive and commissive. In defining kind of speech acts used in the utterance, researcher needed to find the function or the illocutionary of the utterance.In finding the illocutionary force, there were some ways used such as using Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices (IFID) and felicity condition. After finding the illocutionary force, researcher could classify the utterances into some types of speech acts. Keywords: speech acts, types of speech acts, illocutionary force, public speaking

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ABSTRAK

Bahasa adalah sebuah media yang bisa digunakan manusia sebagai mahluk sosial untuk berkomunikasi dan menjalin hubungan dengan manusia lainnya. Berbicara didepan umum atau yang biasa kita sebut berpidato adalah suatu bentuk komunikasi yang bisa kita temukan di masyarakat. Ketika seorang pembicara membawakan sebuah pidato, sebenarnya pembicara tersebut sedang berkomunikasi dengan orang lain karena adalah sebuah proses pengiriman informasi, ide dan pesan kepada orang lain. Di dalam proses pengiriman itu, ada banyak faktor yang mempengaruhi pesan yang dikirimkan. Salah satu faktornya disebut “speech acts” atau tindak tutur. Ketika seorang memproduksi sebuah ucapan dia tidak hanya memproduksi struktur grammar dan kata, tetapi juga memproduksi aksi-aksi dalam ucapannya. Ada beberapa jenis fungsi dalam pikiran seseorang ketika dia memproduksi sebuah ucapan, seperti mendeskripsikan, meminta,mengklaim dan yang lainnya. Fungsi-fungsi itu disebut “illocutionary force”.

Penelitian ini akan menganalisis tipe-tipe tindak tutur apa saja yang digunakan disebuah pidato yang disampaikan oleh Steve Jobs, CEO Apple Computer dan PIXAR Animation Studio, di sebuah sambutan upacara pemberian ijazah di Universitas Stanford pada tahun 2005. Penelitian ini juga membahas tentang bagaimana sebuah ucapan di dalam pidato diklasifiasikan ke dalam tipe-tipe tindak tutur.

Untuk melakukan analisis, penilitian mengunakan metode penelitian kulitatif, secara lebih spesifik analisis dokumen dan konten. Ada tiga langkah utama yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini: pengumpulan data, pengorganisasian data, dan analisis data. Data dikumpulan dengan mengamati pidato dan juga beberapa buku terkait. Setelah itu, data tersebut diatur dan dianalisis.

Di dalam pidato tersebut, menurut fungsi yang ditampilkan oleh tindak tutur, ditemukan ada empat tipe tindak tutur meliputi “representative”, “directive”, “expressive”, dan “commissive”. Ketika kita mau mencari tahu jenis tindak tutur apa yang terkandung dalam sebuah ucapan, kita harus mengetahui fungsi atau “illocutionary force” yang ada di dalam ucapan tersebut. Untuk mengetahui “illocutionary force”, Ada beberapa cara yang bisa digunakan seperti menggunakan “Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices” (IFID) dan “felicity condition”. Setelah mengetahui “illocutionary force” apa saya yang ada, kita dapat mengklasifikasikan ucapan tersebut kedalam tipe-tipe tindak tutur.

Kata kunci: speech acts, types of speech acts, illocutionary force, public speaking.

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A SPEECH ACT ANALYSIS OF THE 2005

STANFORD UNIVERSITY COMMENCEMENT SPEECH

BY STEVE JOBS, CEO OF APPLE COMPUTER

AND PIXAR ANIMATION STUDIO

A SARSANA PENDIDIJAN FINAL PAPER

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

Albertus Joko Darpito Student Number: 111214064

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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A SPEECH ACT ANALYSIS OF THE 2005

STANFORD UNIVERSITY COMMENCEMENT SPEECH

BY STEVE JOBS, CEO OF APPLE COMPUTER

AND PIXAR ANIMATION STUDIO

A SARSANA PENDIDIJAN FINAL PAPER

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

Albertus Joko Darpito Student Number: 111214064

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

2016

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ABSTRACT

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ABSTRAK

Kata kunci: speech acts, types of speech acts, illocutionary force, public speaking.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude for those who helped and supported me in process of writing this final paper. First of all, I would like to thank Jesus Christ for blessing me and for accompanying me in the process of writing. It was a long and winding road, but He was always there to lead the way.

Secondly, I would like to thank my final paper advisor, Concilianus Laos Mbato, M.A., Ed.D. for his guidance and patience in the process of writing. It was a long and complicated process, but I was grateful he was there patiently to guide me. I would like also to thank all PBI lecturers and all staff members who helped me in the process of writing this final paper.

Next, I would like to thank my beloved parents, Albertus Sumbogo and Theresia Rini Purwarni for loving me so much and for becoming my strongest motivations to finish my study. Without their supports and prays, I won’t be strong enough to finish my study. I would like also to thank my brother and sister who always there when I needed their helps.

Last but not least, I would like to thank all my friends in PBI 2011 for all the supports they have given; JRS Indonesia staff members and volunteers for the supports and the great opportunity they have given to me. I would like also to thank those whom I cannot mention one by one that helped me in the process of writing.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

APPROVAL PAGES ii

STATEMENT OF GORK’S ORIGINALITY iv PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI _v ABSTRACT vi

ABSTRAK _vii

ACKNOGLEDGEMENTS viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ix LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF APPENDICES xii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1 1.2 Methodology 4

CHAPTER II. DISCUSSION 7

2.1 Review of Related Literature 7 2.1.1 Pragmatic 7

2.1.2 Speech Acts 9

2.1.2.1 Definition of Speech Acts 9

2.1.2.2 Locutionary, illocutionary and Prelocutionary Acts 10

2.1.2.3 Illocutionary Force Indicating Device and Felicity Condition 12 2.1.2.4 Types of Speech Acts 16

2.1.3 Public Speaking 21

2.2 Finding and Discussion 25 2.2.1 Representatives 26

2.2.2 Directives 32 2.2.3 Expressives 34

2.2.4 Commissives 35

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CHAPTER III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 38 3.1 Conclusions 38

3.2 Recommendations 39 REFERENCES

APPENDICES 43

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LIST OF TABLE

Page

Table 1. The five general functions of speech acts. 20

Table2. Table of analysis. 50 Table 3. Table of Frequency 57

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LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1. Transcript of the 2005 Stanford university commencement speech delivered by Steve Jobs. 43

APPENDIX 2. Table of analysis in utterance, type of speech acts, and illocutionary acts. 44

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CHAPTER I

INTRODECTION

This chapter discusses the background of the study. It consists of three

sections, which are background of the study, problem formulation, and research

method.

1.1 Background of the Study

Human is a social being. It means that human cannot live without the

others. In living together, humans need to find a way to understand the others.

The way is called communication. Keyton (2011) describes communication as “…

a process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person

to another” (as cited in Lunenburg, 2010, p. 1). In the social life, communication

takes an important role in connecting people because people will be able to

understand the others.

In order to understand the others clearly, communication needs to be done

effectively. Lunenburg (2010) describes effective communication is “a two-ways

process that requires effort and skill by both sender and receiver” (p. 6). Through

effective communication, we can tell the others about many things such as ideas,

opinions, desires, what we want or what the others want so that we can understand

each other.

In order to communicate effectively, both a sender and a receiver need to

use an appropriate tool as a medium of communication. Grice and Skinner (1995)

states communication is “the sharing of meaning by sending and receiving

symbolic cues using language” (p. 5). So language is a medium for both sender

and receiver to communicate each other.

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In using language, Yule (1996) states when we communicate with the

others, “we do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and

words, but we perform actions via those utterances” (p. 47). When a son utters “I

am so hungry” to his father, it means that he forms a statement that tells the father

that he is hungry. However, it also means that he requests his father to provide

some foods. Those kinds of acts are called speech acts. Yule (1996) defines speech

act as “Actions performed via utterances” (p. 47).

In using language as a medium of communication, the discussion of

speech acts becomes very important because it can help people to understand what

people intend to say through the utterances. Yule (1996) states that when we

produced a utterance, “we form a utterance with some kinds of function in mind”

(p. 48) such as apologizing, greeting, requesting, complaining, invitation,

refusing, etc. It is called illocutionary force of the utterance. However, in one

utterance that the speaker produces, it can potentially have some different

illocutionary forces. This condition raises a question of how the speaker can

assume that the intended illocutionary force will be recognized by the audience.

By understanding how speech acts work, hopefully we can raise our awareness

about the utterances and the following illocutionary forces that we produce when

we communicate with the others.

There are many forms of communication. One of them is called public

speaking or speech. Lucas (2009) says that public speaking is “a way of making

your ideas public – of sharing them with other people and of influencing other

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communicating with the audience because there is a process of transmitting

information, idea, or message to the audience.

Creating and delivering a good speech is not easy. There are many factors

that should be considered. Lucas (2009) says that in creating and delivering, the

speaker needs to “plan, organize and deliver the speech skillfully” (p. 8). In

relation with speech acts study, a good speech should also consider the utterances

containing speech acts and illocutionary force that support the process of

transmitting information, idea, or message to the audience. By understanding the

process of how speech acts are used in each utterance of the speech and how the

illocutionary forces are formed, we can produce a good speech which maintains

its speech acts and illocutionary forces.

This study reports an analysis of the speech acts used in the 2005 Stanford

University commencement speech by Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer and

PIXAR Animation Studio. Researcher chooses the speech because the speech is

very inspiring and related to researcher’s life, especially in the process of studying

in University and finishing the final paper. In his speech, Steve Jobs describes

how he overcame some problems and failures happened in his life. Researcher

also finds some problems and failures in the process of studying in university and

finishing this final paper. The speech motivates researcher to not give up in

overcoming problems and failures. Through the speech, researcher learns that God

speaks to us through many unexpected ways, or through “some dots”. All we need

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impossible to connect the dots if we just stop in one dot. We need to keep move on

and find the other dots.

In order to analyze the speech acts, the researcher formulates a question:

what are the types of speech acts used by Steve Jobs in the 2005 Stanford

University commencement speech? The analysis also involves how the utterance

in the speech are classified into some the types of speech acts and how to

recognize the intended illocutionary forces in the utterances. Regarding to the type

of speech acts analyzed, Yule (1996) says that in classifying the speech, there are

two ways used: the first way is based on “general function performed by speech

acts” and the second one is based on “the relationship between the structural form

of utterance and the general communication function of utterance” (p. 53-54).

However, in this paper we are going to discuss only on the classification of speech

acts based on the general function performed by speech acts.

1.2 Methodology

This study was qualitative research and it used qualitative research method in

order to do the research successfully. Creswell (2009) explains qualitative

research as “means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or

group ascribe to a social or human problem” (p. 4). Moreover, he mentioned the

process of qualitative research involved “emerging questions and procedures, data

typically collected in the participant’s setting, data analysis inductively building

from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making interpretation of the

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Qualitative research method was used because there were several reasons. The

first reason was because this study was conducted in a natural setting. Ary, Jacobs

and Sorensen (2010) state that qualitative research take place in “the natural

setting” (p. 424). Additionally, Creswell (1994) states that qualitative researcher

tends to collect data in “the field where participants’ experience the issue or

problem under the study” (p. 38). In relation with public speaking as an object of

this study, researcher collected the data by watching, listening and analyzing the

speech. It means the research was conducted in a natural setting.

The second reason was because this study put researcher as a key instrument.

According to Creswell (1994), in qualitative research the researcher is the one

who “gathers information and data through some instruments such as examining

documents, observing behavior, and interviewing participants” (p. 38). In this

study, researcher gathered information and data through examining the transcript

of the speech.

The third reason was because this study used interpretive inquire. According

to Creswell (1994), in qualitative research researcher makes interpretation of what

they see, hear, and understand (p. 39). In analyzing speech acts used in each

utterance of the speech researcher interpreted the speech through watching,

reading, listening and understanding the speech.

This study used content and document analysis. Ary at all (2010) says that

content and document analysis is a research method that “focuses on analyzing

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Additionally, they mention that “the material analyzed can be public records,

textbooks, letters, films, tapes, diaries, themes, reports, or other documents” (p.

29). This study analyzed the video and the transcript of the speech.

In this study, the data is collected by observing and analyzing some document

related to the study. There two kinds of data collected in this study: primary and

secondary data. The primary data is the 2005 Stanford University commencement

speech by Steve Jobs. The primary data was taken from

http://news.stanford.edu/2005/06/14/jobs-061505/. The secondary data were some

documents or books on linguistic such as pragmatics, speech acts and books on

public speaking.

In order to do the research, there were three main steps or procedures that

were used: data gathering/collecting, data organizing and data analysis. In data

gathering/collecting, the data was collected by observing the transcript of the

speech. Transcript was used in order to observe and analyze the data easily. After

that, the data was organized into a table. By using the table, the researcher

analyzed each utterance in the speech in order to find what kind of speech acts

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CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

This chapter consists of the review of related literature, the finding, and also the discussion or interpretation of the findings.

2.1 Review of Related Literature

This section aims to review other studies and theories related to the topic being studied. This section consists of three subsections: pragmatics, speech acts, and public speaking. There are some reasons why the discussion is focused on those three theories. The discussion is focused on speech act is because this study focuses on the analysis of speech acts in the speech by Steve Jobs. Moreover, speech act is one of the branches of pragmatics study. So it is important to discuss pragmatics briefly.

2.1.1 Pragmatics

Regarding the topic of this study which is speech acts as a branch of pragmatics study, in this section researcher discusses what pragmatics is. Researcher uses some definitions of pragmatics according to Yule (1996).

1. Definition of Pragmatics According to Yule (1996)

Yule (1996) defines pragmatics into four areas, which are “study of speaker meaning”, “study of contextual meaning”, “study of how more gets communicated then is said”, and “study of the expression of relative distance” (p. 3).

a. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning

In this area, Yule (1996) defines pragmatics as a study of meaning “…as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader)”

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(p. 3). It has, consequently, more to do with the analysis of what people means by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves.

b. Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning

In this area, according to Yule (1996), pragmatics is an interpretation of what people intend to say in a particular context and how the context influences what is said (p. 3). Furthermore, he says that “it requires a consideration of how speakers organize what they want to say in accordance with who they are talking to, where, when, and under what circumstances” (p.3)

c. Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated then is said

In this area, Yule (1996) says pragmatics also necessarily explores “how listeners can make inferences about what is said in order to arrive at an interpretation of the speaker’s intended meaning” (p. 3). This type of study explores how a great deal of what is unsaid is recognized as a part of what is communicated. Furthermore, he says that we might say that it is “the investigation of invisible meaning” (p. 3).

d. Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.

Yule (1996) says that the third area raises the question of what determines the choice between the “said” and the “unsaid” (p. 3). The basic answer is tied to the notion of distance. He says that “Closeness, whether it is physical, social, or conceptual implies shared experience” (p. 3). He concludes that “on the assumption of how close or distant the listener is, speakers determine how much need to be said” (p. 3).

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After discussing some definition of pragmatics according to Yule (1996), in the next section we are going to discuss speech acts as a branches of pragmatic study (see Yule, 1996, pp. 9-83)

2.1.2 Speech Act

In this section, the researcher discusses what speech acts is. There will be a discussion of three related acts when the actions performed by producing an utterance: Locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts. There will be also a discussion of how to indicate the illocutionary force of utterance. In the end of the discussion, the researcher will discuss about types of speech acts based on functions performed by speech acts: Declarative, representative, expressive, directives and commissives.

2.1.2.1 Definition of Speech Acts

When people communicate or use language to communicate, they will produce some utterances. The utterances actually don’t only contain grammatical structures and words. According to Yule (1996), the utterances also contain some actions (p. 47). That statement is also supported by John Searle that says “it is essential to any specimen of linguistic communication that it involves linguistic acts” (as cited in Hutchby, 2008, p. 1). It can be seen in the example 1 below:

Example 1:

I’ve just made some coffee.

That utterance doesn’t only produce a meaningful linguistic expression, but also contains some acts or actions. It’s not only defined as a statement that

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you’ve just made some coffee, but it could be defined as an offer. Those kinds of acts are generally called speech act.

In defining what speech acts is there are some definitions taken from some linguists. Yule (1996) defines speech acts as “actions performed via utterances” (p. 47). Jerrold Sadock defines speech acts as “acts done in the process of speaking” (as cited in Horn and ward, 2006, p. 53). Speech acts is acts performed by using language (Department of Linguistic at The Ohio State University, 2011, p. 286).

2.1.2.2 Locutionary Acts, Illocutionary Acts, and Perlocutionary Acts

According to Yule (1996), on any occasion, the actions performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts: locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts (p. 48). That statement is also related with what J. L Austin says that “there are three-way contrast among the kinds of acts that are performed when language is put to use, namely the distinction between locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts, all of which are characteristic of most utterances” (as cited in Horn and Ward, 2006, p. 54).

1. Locutionary Acts

Locutionary acts as Yule (1996) defines is “…the basic of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression” (p. 48). It is also known as the act of saying something. Furthermore, J. L Austin describes locutionary acts as,

Acts involved in the construction of speech, such as uttering certain sounds or making certain marks, using particular words and using them in conformity with the grammatical rules of a particular language and with certain senses and certain references as determined by the rules of the language from which they are drawn (as cited in Horn and Ward, 2004, p. 54)

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2. Illocutionary Acts

According to Yule (1996), mostly we don’t just produce well-formed utterance with no purpose but we also form an utterance with some kinds of function in mind (p. 48). Those kinds of function in mind are called Illocutionary acts. Furthermore, he defines Illocutionary acts as “the acts that contain the specific purpose that the speakers have in mind” (p. 48). Moreover, he says that “Illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance” (p. 48). It is also generally known as the illocutionary force of the utterance. Inviting, advising, promising, ordering, excusing and apologizing are some examples of illocutionary force of the utterance.

3. Perlocutionary Acts.

According to Yule (1996), we do not, of course, simply create an utterance with a function without intending it to have an effect (p. 48). This is the third categorized of speech act, known as perlocutionary acts. J. L. Austin says that perlocutionary acts is “a consequence or by-product of speaking, whether intended or not” (as cited on Horn and Ward, 2004, p. 55).

In order to understand the application of locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary, let’s take a look to the example 2 below that is uttered by a bartender.

Example 2:

The bar will be closed in five minutes.

In that utterance, the locutionary acts can be seen in the used of indirect quotation. The illocutionary act of that utterance can be seen in the act of informing the customer that the bar will be closed soon and perhaps also the act of urging them to order a last drink. The perlocutionary act of that utterance is the effect of saying that utterance where the customer will get ready to leave to bar or order the last order before the bar is closed.

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2.1.2.3 Illocutionary Force Indicating Device (IFID) and Felicity Condition

In the discussion of illocutionary acts, Yule (1996) says that “in the same utterance can potentially have quite different illocutionary forces” (p. 49). It can be seen in the example 3 below.

Example 3:

a. I’ll see you later. ( = A) b. [I predict that] A. c. [I promise you that] A. d. [I warn you that] A.

In that utterance (a), there are three possible illocutionary forces which are prediction (b), promise (c) and warning (d). The problem is that it is quite difficult to assume that the intended illocutionary force can be recognized by the audience. Yule (1996) proposes two things that should be considered to solve that problem: Illocutionary Force Indicating Device (IFID) and felicity condition (p. 49)

1. Illocutionary Force Indicating Device (IFID)

Illocutionary Force Indicating Device is a device that can indicate the intended illocutionary force by finding performative verb (Vp). Yule (1996) defines performative verb as “a verb that performs the illocutionary force” (p. 49). The structure can be seen in the example 4 below.

Example 4:

“I (Vp) (you) that/to...”

If we try to apply that structure, the result can be seen in the example 5 below. Example 5:

a. I predict that I’ll see you later. b. I promise you that I’ll see you later. c. I warn you that I’ll see you later.

In those utterances, the performative verbs are “predict”, “promise”, and “warn”. By using performative verbs, both speaker and audience have same perception about the intended illocutionary force that is used in that utterance. However, Yule (1996) says that most of the time “there is no performative verb

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mentioned” (p. 52). Addressing that problem, he says that in identifying the intended illocutionary force, we can also indentify the word order, stress, and intonation (p. 52).

Example 6: a. You’re going! b. You’re going? c. Are you going?

In example 6a, the utterance doesn’t perform any performative verb, but we can indicate that the speaker tells or commands the audience to go by considering on other indicators such as the word order and the intonation when the speaker utters that utterance. In example 6 b and c, the utterances don’t perform any performative verb, but we can indicate that in b the speaker requests for a confirmation and in c the speaker delivers a question to the audience by considering on the word order. The stress and the intonation might be same in those two utterances (b and c). However, the difference in ordering the word indicates that those two utterances have difference illocutionary force.

2. Felicity Condition

The second thing that needs to be considered in indicating the intended illocutionary force is felicity condition. Yule (1996) defines felicity condition as “certain expected or appropriate circumstances, for the performance of a speech act to be recognized as intended (p. 50).

Example 7:

I sentence you to six months in prison.

In that example 7, the performance will be inappropriate if the speaker is not a specific person in a special context, in this case is a judge in a courtroom.

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Moreover, in everyday contexts among ordinary people, Yule (1996) says that there are also “preconditions on speech act” (p. 50). The first one is called general conditions on the participants. Yule (1996) defines general conditions as conditions “where people can understand the language being used and they are not playing acting or being nonsensical” (p. 50).

The second one is called content conditions. According to Yule (1996), content conditions are conditions where the content of the utterance must be in accordance with the intended illocutionary force (p. 50). For example, for both a promise and a warning, the content of the utterance must be about a future event.

The third one is called preparatory conditions. According to Yule (1996), preparatory conditions can be explained by observing the difference of preparatory conditions used in promise and warning (p. 51). In a promise, there are two preparatory conditions: first, the event will not happen by itself, and second, the event will have beneficial effect. In a warning, the preparatory conditions are the audience doesn’t know whether the event will occur or not, the speaker does think the event will occur, and the event will not have a beneficial effect.

Related to that condition, there is sincerity condition. According to Yule (1996), in sincerity condition, the speaker genuinely acts as in the condition of the intended illocutionary force (p.51). For example, in a promise, the speaker genuinely intents to carry out the future actions and in a warning, speaker genuinely believes that the future event will not have a beneficial effect.

Finally, there is an essential condition. According to Yule (1996), essential conditions are conditions where the speaker’s state will change following the conditions created by the utterance (p. 51). In a promise, the utterance changes

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the speaker’s state from non-obligation to obligation. Same way with warning, by uttering the warning, the speaker changes his/her state from non-informing a bad future event to informing.

2.1.2.4 Types of Speech Acts

Based on the functions performed by speech acts, Yule (1996) classifies five types of speech acts: declarative, representatives, expressive, directives, and commissives (p. 53). This classification is same with what Searle (1976) proposes in his work. However, Searle mentioned that it is a classification of illocutionary acts not speech acts. Searle (1976) classifies five categorizes of illocutionary acts that’s also related to the Austin’s work: declarative, representative, expressive, directives and commissives (p. 10-13). Regarding to this difference, Yule (1996) has mentioned that the term ‘speech acts’ is “generally interpreted quite narrowly to mean only the illocutionary force of an utterance” (p. 49).

1. Declarative

The first type of speech acts is declarative. According to Yule (1996) Declarative is those kinds of speech acts that “change the world via their utterances” (p. 53), such as ‘I bet’, ‘I declare’, and ‘I resign.’ Others can be seen in example 8:

Example 8:

a. I baptize this boy John Smith.

b. I hereby pronounce you man and wife.

c. This court sentences you to ten years’ imprisonment.

In utterance (8a), the utterance changes nameless baby into one with a name. In utterance (8b), the utterance turns two singles into a married couple. In utterance (8c), the utterance puts the person into prison. In using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via words.

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The second type is representative. Yule (1996) describes representative as that kind of speech acts that “state what the speaker believes to be the case or not” (p. 53), such as describing, clamming, hypothesizing, insisting and predicting. That definition is also same with what Searle (1976) proposes that “the purpose of the member of representative class is to commit the speaker to something’s being the case” (p. 10). Additionally, he says that we have to emphasize the term ‘believe’ and ‘commit’ in representative because they are there intended to mark dimension (p. 10).

Example 9:

a. The earth is flat.

b. Chomsky didn’t write about peanuts. c. It was a warm sunny day.

Those examples show us how the speaker represents the world as he or she believes it is. In using representative, the speaker makes the words fit the world (of belief). In utterance (9a), the speaker makes a hypothesis that the earth is flat. Without considering the fact that his statement scientifically proved or not, the speaker expresses what he believes. In utterance (9b), the speaker claims that Chomsky didn’t write about peanuts. In his/her claim, the speaker believes that Chomsky didn’t write about peanuts. In utterance (9c), the speaker describes that it was a warm sunny day. In his/her description, the speaker believes that it was a warm sunny day because he can see and feel it.

3. Expressive

The next type of speech acts is expressive. According to Yule (1996), Expressive is that kind of speech acts that state what the speaker feels (p. 53).

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Searle (1976) says that expressive is used “… to express the psychological state” (p. 12). Additionally, Yule (1996) says that the psychological state can be “statement of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow” (p. 53). According to Yule (1996), it can be caused by something the speaker does or the audience does, but it is about the speaker’s experience (p. 53). In using an expressive, the speaker makes the word fit the world (of feeling).

Example 10:

a. I’m really sorry! b. Congratulations! c. Oh, yes, great!

Other examples of expressive: I apologize for…, I appreciate that…, I congratulate you on…, I deplore that…, I detest that…, I regret that…, I thank you for…, I welcome…, I’m glad that…

4. Directive

The next type of speech acts is Directive. Yule (1996) defines directive as “that kind of speech acts that the speakers use to get someone else to do something” (p. 54). That statement is also same with what Searle (1976) says that directive is used to “get the hearer to do something” (p. 11). In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words (via the audience). There are commands, orders, requests, suggestions, and, prohibitions as illustrated in the examples 11.

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a. Give me a cup of coffee. Make it black. b. Could you lend me a pen, please? c. Don’t touch that.

Other examples of directive: I ask you to…, I beg you to…, I challenge you to…, I command you to…, I dare you to…, I invite you to…, I request you to…

5. Commissive

The last type of speech acts is Commissive. Yule (1996) describes Commissive as “that kind of speech acts that speaker uses to “commit themselves to some future actions” (p. 54). Searle (1976) defines commissive as type of speech acts that aims “…to commit the speaker to some future course of action” (p. 11). Commissive can be performed by the speaker alone, or by a speaker as a member of a group. In using a commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words (via the speakers). There are promises, threats, refusals, pledges, and as illustrated in the examples 12 below.

Example 12: a. I’ll be back.

b. I’m going to get it right next time. c. We will not do that.

Other examples of commissives: I guarantee that…, I pledge that…, I promise that…, I swear that…, I vow that…, I undertake to…, I warrant that…, I want to…

Table 1. The five general functions of speech acts

Speech act type Direction of fit

S = speaker; X = situation

Declarations Words change the world S causes X Representatives Make words fit the world S believes X

Expressive Make words fit the world S feels X Directives Make the world fit words S wants X Commissives Make the world fit words S intends X

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2.1.3 Public Speaking

Nowadays, public speaking whether we realize it or not becomes a skill that is commonly used in doing communication with other people. According to Coopman and Lull (2009), “We use public speaking skill every day, although not usually in the formal way most people associate with speaking in public” (p. 3). You answer question in class, participate in meetings at work, presentations that you present during your study, tell classmates about some experience are some examples of how public speaking is applied in our daily life. When we speak in front of public, we try to transfer or share our ideas to people. Lucas (2009) defines public speaking in three ways, “a way of making your ideas public, a way of sharing them with other people, and a way of influencing other people” (p. 4). Influencing other people becomes a goal in public speaking because the speaker will expect the audience to believe on his or her ideas and do something about it.

In a formal way, public speaking is done in front of public. It means that there are numbers of people that listen to the speech. It has also limited time to do the speech. Coopman and Lull (2009) define public speaking as “a situation in which an individual speaks to a group of people, assuming responsibility for speaking for a defined length of time” (p. 4).

Wilson, Arnold, Wertheimer (1990) propose three types of speech based on its purpose: “speech to inform”, “speech to entertain”, and “speech to persuade” (p. 30). They explains that speech to inform aims to “let the audiences or listeners

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know about the information” (p. 30). Speech to entertain aims to “entertain the audience or the listeners” (p. 30). Speech to persuade aims to “persuade or influence the audience to do something or believe in something” (p. 30).

In designing and delivering effective public speaking, the speaker needs to consider many things. In 2012, Wrench, Goding, Johnson, and Attias, define what public speaking is and what need to be involved to create effective public speaking:

Public speaking is the process of designing and delivering a message to an audience. Effective public speaking involves understanding your audience and speaking goals, choosing elements for the speech that will engage your audience with your topic, and delivering your message skillfully. Good public speakers understand that they must plan, organize, and revise their material in order to develop an effective speech (p. 8)

Coopman and Lull (2009) conclude that there are 8 elements interact in public speaking that should be considered in designing and delivering public speaking: sender (speaker), message, channel, receiver (audience), noise, feedback, context, and environment (p. 16)

1. Speaker

In public speaking, speaker is the one who deliver the speech. Coopman and Lull (2009) define speaker as “The person who assumes the primary responsibility for conveying a message in a public communication context” (p. 16). The speaker holds a central role as initiator and has the primary responsibility for talking.

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2. Message

In public speaking, the speaker delivers a message. Coopman and Lull (2009) describe message as “The words and nonverbal cues a speaker uses to convey ideas, feelings and thoughts” (p. 16). The message can be a form of words (verbal communication) and also how the speaker presents those words in his or her speech (nonverbal communication).

3. Channel

In delivering the speech, sometime the speaker does not only deliver the speech in person but also using some media such as print and electronic. It is called channel. Coopman and Lull (2009) define channel as “a mode or medium of communication” (p. 17). When the speaker delivers the speech, he or she involves multiple channels such as using presentation media, playing a clip or video that relevant to the topic, or providing some handout to the audiences.

4. Audience

The speaker delivers a speech to the receiver or audience. Coopman and Lull (2009) define audience as “The intended recipients of a speaker’s message” (p. 17). Commonly the speaker delivers the speech to the audience in person. However, nowadays maybe digitally recorder and the audience can be far beyond the speaker. Additionally, they say that public speaking is “audience centered”, which means speaker must “acknowledge their audience’s expectations and situation” (p. 4).

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5. Interference

When the speaker delivers a message using speech, sometime there is some interference. It is called noise. Coopman and Lull (2009) describe noise as “Anything that interferes with the understanding of a message” (p. 17). It may be internal noise or external noise. Internal noise may be caused by the audience such as daydreaming or thinking about something else that causes the audience doesn’t pay attention to the speech. External noise may be caused by external factor around such as other people talking or from the cell phone.

6. Feedback

In public speaking, it is also possible that the audience gives feedback to the speaker. Coopman and Lull (2009), feedback is “A response from the audience to a speech” (p. 17). In public speaking Nods, smiles, shaking head, frown, applause is the way the audience responds the speech.

7. Context

In delivering a speech the speaker needs to be the context where the interaction takes place. Coopman and Lull (2009) mention that context includes “the physical setting for the speech, such as auditorium, classroom, museum, conference room, public places” (p. 18). Each context will influence the way message is delivered to the audience.

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8. Environment

Coopmand and Lull (2009) says that environment refers to “all external that influence a public speaking event” (p. 18). For example, events occurring at or near the time when the speech is delivered may be influence the audience’s react

2.2 The Finding and Discussion

This section is to show what the researcher finds in the analysis of a speech delivered by Steve Jobs. In the analysis, researcher analyzes what types of speech acts used in the utterances. The analysis also involves what kind of illocutionary forces performed in the utterances. In the analysis, researcher used the classification of speech acts proposed by Yule (1996).

Yule (1996) classifies 5 types of speech acts based on the function performed by speech acts: declarative, representative, directive, expressive, and commissive (p. 53). However, in the speech analyzed there are only four types of speech acts found: Representative, Directive, Expressive, and Commissive. There is no declarative speech acts found in the speech.

The speaker did not use any declarative speech acts because as Yule (1996) said that in using declarative speech acts, the speaker has to have a special institution role, in a specific context. In the speech, Steve Jobs don’t have any special institution role to perform declarative speech acts. Actually, the speech is an opening speech, so that there are no utterances that change the world via his utterances such as status.

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The first type of speech acts is representatives. Yule (1996) describes representatives as those kinds of speech acts that “state what the speaker believes to be the case or not” (p. 53). In the speech being analyzed, representative is the most frequent type of speech acts compared with the other types. This fact is affected by the structural form of the speech delivered by Steve Jobs. Generally, the speech delivered by Steve Jobs consists of three stories of his life. In those three stories, he talked a lot about his experiences when he studied in university, when he decided to drop off, when he started his company, etc. When the speaker tells some stories or shares his experience, it means that normally he believes in what he has said.

When the speaker forms an utterance, Yule (1996) says that the speaker forms an utterance with “some kind of function in mind” that we called Illocutionary force of utterances (p. 48). In representatives, there are some functions or illocutionary force performed such as describing, stating, clamming/asserting, hypothesizing, insisting and predicting. In the speech being analyzed, there are two illocutionary forces that are performed by the representative speech acts: description and claim.

1. Description

Description is frequently used by the speaker because it is also related to the three stories that he tells. By describing his three stories it means that he believes in those three stories.

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a. The first story is about connecting the dot.

b. I dropped out of Reed College after the first six months, but then stayed around as a drop in for another 18 months or so before I really quit.

c. So why did I drop out?

d. My biological mother was a young, unwed graduate student, and she decided to put me up for adoption.

e. She felt very strongly that I should be adopted by college graduates, so everything was all set for me to be adopted at birth by a lawyer and his wife.

In the example 13 above, there is a piece of the first story. In the beginning the speaker describes what the first story is about. Then, in the following utterance, the speaker gives further description about his decision to drop out of the college. He also describes why he dropped out by describing his mother.

In finding function ‘description’ in the speech, Yule (1996) proposes a way by finding the performative verb (p. 49). However, in the example 13, there is no performative verb ‘describing’ used to indicate that the speaker is describing something. In order to solve that problem, Yule (1996) proposes another ways to indicate the function by looking for another indicator such as word order and question mark and looking for the felicity condition (p. 50).

In example 13a, researcher considers that utterance as a description and representative by looking at the felicity condition. According to Yule (1996), in felicity condition, there are five preconditions on speech acts and one of them is called content condition (p. 50). According to Yule (1996), content condition

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means the content of the utterance must be in accordance with the intended illocutionary forces. The content of the utterance (13a) is about describing what the first story is about.

In example 13b, researcher considers that utterance as a description and a representative speech acts because of some reasons. In the utterance, the speaker describes his past experience when he dropped out of the college. The content of the utterance is about description. Through the description, the speaker let the audiences know what happened to him in the past.

In example 13c, the word order and question mark indicate that the speaker asks a question. However, it is a rhetorical question. So the speaker doesn’t expect any answers from the audiences. He is the one that will answer the question. Through the question, the speaker actually wants to describe why he dropped out.

In example 13d, the speaker describes his biological mother. Before he describes about it, the audiences might not know about his biological mother. So when he describes his biological mother, the speaker let the audience know his mother. When the speaker describes his mother, he believes in his own understanding and observation of his mother.

In example 13e, the speaker describes what his mother felt at that moment. Feeling is an abstract thing. When the speaker wants to tell the audience about his mother’s feeling, he needs to describe the feeling based on what he believes to be

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his mother’s feeling. He believes about his mother’s feeling because he relates it with what his mother has done.

In order to prove that those utterances are representatives and more specifically description, we can assess the utterances using an instrument proposed by Searle (1976). He says that “all the members of the representative class are assessable on the dimension of assessment which includes true and false” (p. 10). In the example 13, we can assess the utterances using the question “is it true that ………?” and we might answer that question using “it is true or false that…..” In the example 13a,b, d, and e, it is possible that we assess the utterance using true and false: “is it true that the first story is about connecting the dot?” However, for the example 13c, we cannot use the assessment to prove that the utterance belongs to representative. We can use other indicator, such as considering the question as a rhetorical question as researcher has elaborated above.

2. Claim

The second function found in representative is claim or assertion. Claim is also considered as representative because it involves also sense of believing. Claim is statement that something is true or is a fact, although other people might not believe it, as illustrated in example 14.

Example 14:

a. It was pretty scary at the time, but looking back it was one of the best decisions I’ve ever made.

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b. Reed College at that time offered perhaps the best calligraphy instruction in the country.

c. If I never dropped in on that single course in college, the Mac would have never had multiple typefaces or proportionally spaced fonts.

d. But it turned out that getting fired from Apple was the best thing that I could have ever happened to me.

e. Pixar went out to create the worlds first computer animated feature film, Toy Story, and is now the most successful animation studio in the world f. Remembering that I’ll be dead soon is the most important tool I’ve ever

encountered to help me make the big choices in life.

It is same with the description that in classifying those utterances we could use some ways. By looking at the felicity condition, specifically in content condition, we can see that the content of all utterances is about claiming something that the speaker believes to be true or not. In utterance 14a, 14b, 14d, 14e, 14f the speaker claims something related to the best decision, best calligraphy, best thing that I could have ever happened, the most successful and the most important. By using some words such as “the best…” and “the most….” the speaker believes in what he claims. By looking at those words, researcher can differentiate the utterances which indicate claim and description.

Yule (1996) says that “in the same utterance can potentially have quite different illocutionary forces” (p. 49). In examples 14, it is also possible to consider description as the illocutionary force. However, Yule (1996) also says that we can indicate the illocutionary forces by using some indicators of ways. Researcher considers the utterances as claims because there are some words in the utterances that indicate the speaker is claiming something, such as “the best” and

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“the most”. Researcher also can consider the utterances as claim because the speaker also uses a grammatical structure, such as “if condition”. In the utterance (14c), the speaker claims that if he doesn’t do something, then the following condition will not be fulfilled. By using conditional sentence, the speaker believes that something happens because there is causality. Moreover, looking for the felicity condition, researcher finds that the content of the utterances is about claim.

In order to prove that those utterances are representative and more specifically claim, we can also asses the utterances using “true-false” assessment. For example: Is it true that it is the best decision he has ever made? ; Is it true that Reed College at that time offered perhaps the best calligraphy instruction in the country? Etc.

After analyzing the data, researcher concludes that in the speech being analyzed, it is found that the speaker performs representative speech acts. Representative can be found in some illocutionary forces of the utterances that indicate what the speaker believes, such as description and claim. The illocutionary forces can be found using some ways, such as finding the performative verbs, analyzing word order, stress, and intonation, and analyzing the felicity condition.

2.2.2 Directives

The second type of speech acts found in the speech being analyzed is directive. Yule (1996) defines directive as “that kind of speech acts that the

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speaker uses to get someone else to do something” (p. 54). In directive, there are some illocutionary forces performed, such as request, order, command, suggestion, and advice. In the speech being analyzed, generally the speaker suggests the audience based on his life experiences. It is related to one of the three types of speech proposed by Wilson, Arnold, Wertheimer (1990). They mention that one of the types is “speech to persuade” (p. 30). Moreover, he explains that speech to persuade aims to “persuade or influence the audience to do something or believe in something” (p. 30).

Example 15:

a. So you have to trust that the dots will somehow connect in your future. b. You have to trust in something, your God, destiny, life, karma,

whatever.

c. If you haven’t found it yet, keep looking and don’t settle. d. Don’t lose faith.

e. don’t waste it living someone else’s life.

f. Don’t be trapped by dogma, which is living with the results of other people’s thinking

g. Don’t let the noise of others’ opinions drown out your own inner voice. h. And most important, have the courage to follow your heart and

intuition.

i. Stay Hungry, Stay Foolish.

In indicating that those utterances are directive speech acts, we couldn’t find any performative verbs. However, as Yule (1996) mentions that we can indicate the function by using other indicator such as “word order” (p. 50). In utterance a and b, the speaker uses auxiliary ‘have to’ that indicate necessity. By

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using “have to”, the speaker also suggests the audiences to trust because he thinks that those are necessary.

According to Yule (1996), the directive speech acts can be positive or negative (p. 54). In the utterances 15c, 15d, 15e, 15f, and 15g, the speaker uses auxiliary ‘don’t’ in the beginning in order to suggest the audiences not to do something. In the utterances h and I, the speaker puts the verbs in the beginning of each utterance to indicate that they are imperative.

Using felicity condition, specifically in content condition, researcher can also explain why the utterances are considered as suggestion. According to Yule (1996), the content of utterance should be in accordance with the intended illocutionary force. In the example 15, the contents of the utterances are about suggesting the audience to do, to trust, and to not doing something.

After analyzing the data, researcher concludes that in the speech being analyzed, it is found that the speaker performs directive speech acts. Directive can be found in some illocutionary forces of the utterances that indicate the speaker uses to get someone else to do something, such as suggestion. The illocutionary forces can be found using some ways, such as finding the performative verbs, analyzing word order, stress, and intonation, and analyzing the felicity condition.

2.2.3 Expressives

The third type of speech acts found in the speech being analyzed is expressive. According to Yule (1996), expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels (p. 53). In addition, he also mentions that in

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expressive, the speaker expresses psychological states and can be statement of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow (p. 53). In the speech delivered by Steve Jobs, there are two illocutionary forces that indicate what the speaker fells: gratitude and honor.

Example 16:

a. Thank you.

b. I am honored to be with you today at your commencement from the one of finest universities in the world.

c. Thank you all very much

In utterances 16a and 16c, the speaker express what he fells by expressing gratitude. He uses the verb “thank” to express his gratitude. In the utterance 16b, the speaker expresses what he fells by expressing his honor. In indicating that those utterances are expressive, as Yule (1996) mentions that we can find performative verb ‘honored’ such as in utterance b and performative verb ‘thank’ such as in utterance 16a and 16c (p. 53).

After analyzing the data, researcher concludes that in the speech being analyzed, it is found that the speaker performs expressive speech acts. Expressive can be found in some illocutionary forces of the utterances that indicate what the speaker feels, such as gratitude and honor. The illocutionary forces can be found using some ways, such as finding the performative verbs, analyzing word order, stress, and intonation, and analyzing the felicity condition.

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The fourth type of speech acts found in the speech being analyzed is commissives. Yule (1996) says that commissives are kinds of speech acts that speakers use to “commit themselves to some future actions” (p. 54). Additionally, he also mentions that commissive expresses “what the speaker intends” (p. 54). In the speech being analyzed there are some illocutionary forces that indicate the speaker commits himself to some future actions such as intention, hope/wish, and guarantee as illustrated in example 17.

Example 17:

a. Today I want to tell you three stories from my life. b. Let me give you one example.

c. As with all matters of the heart, you’ll know when you find it. d. And I hope it’s the closest I get for a few more decades.

e. Right now the new is you, but someday not too long from now, you will gradually become the old and be cleared away.

f. And now, as you graduate to begin a new, I wish that for you. 1. Intention

In utterances 17a and 17b, the speaker expresses what he intends to do by using the verb “want” and “let”. When the speaker says, “I want to tell you…” it means that the speaker is going to tell the audiences or in another word, “commit himself to some future actions. When the speaker says, “let me give you one example” it means that the speaker is going to give the audiences one example or in another word also: commit himself to some future action.

2. Guarantee

In the utterances 17c and 17e, the speaker expresses his commitment to the future action by guarantying something to the audiences. When the speaker

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guarantees something to the audiences, he is sure that something is going to be happened in the future. That sense of certainty is the reason why researcher considers the utterances a guarantee. In guarantee, there should be something that to be guaranteed. In utterance 17c, the speaker guarantees that they will know when they find it. It means that the speaker is sure that in the future the audiences will find it. In utterance 17e, the speaker guarantees that they will gradually become the old and be cleared away. It means the speaker is sure that in the future they will be like that.

3. Hope/Wish

In the utterances 17d and 17f, the speaker expresses his commitment to the future action by hoping or wishing something. When the speaker hopes something, he wants something happens in the future. In the utterance d, the speaker hopes that it will be the closest he gets for a few more decades. In the utterance 17f, the speaker wishes something to the audiences related to their graduation.

In finding the illocutionary forces, there are some ways that we can use. As Yule (1996) proposes, we can find some “performative verbs” that indicate the speaker uses to commit himself to some future actions, such as want, will, hope, and wish (p. 49). Additionally, he also proposes that we can also look at the “felicity condition” (p. 50). In representative, the content of the utterances in example 17 are related to future event or action.

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After analyzing the data, researcher concludes that in the speech being analyzed, it is found that the speaker performs commissive speech acts. Commissive can be found in some illocutionary forces of the utterances that indicate the speaker’s commitment some future action or event, such as description and claim. The illocutionary forces can be found using some ways, such as finding the performative verbs, analyzing word order, stress, and intonation, and analyzing the felicity condition.

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CHAPTER III

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter discusses some conclusions of the finding and the analysis. It also provides some recommendations to the readers of this study.

3.1 Conclusion

Based on the general functions performed by speech acts, in the speech delivered by Steve Jobs, there are four types of speech acts performed through the utterances. There are representative, directive, expressive, and commissive. Generally, representative is used to express what the speaker believes to be or not to be a case. The illocutionary forces performed in representatives are description and claim. Generally, directive is used when the speaker uses to get someone else to do something. The illocutionary force performed in directives is suggestion. Generally, expressive is used to express what the speaker feels. The illocutionary forces performed in expressive are gratitude and honor. Generally, commissive is used when the speakers wants to commit himself to some future actions. In other words is to express what the speaker intends. The illocutionary forces performed in commissives are intention, guarantee, and hope/wish.

In determining the type of the speech, we should know the communicative purpose or the function of the utterance by looking for the illocutionary force of each utterance. By knowing the illocutionary force, we can classify the speech acts into some groups of the same communicative purpose or function. In determining illocutionary force of utterance, there are some techniques used. The

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first technique is by finding the performative verb. However, not all utterances have performative verb. If there is no performative verb found, we can use other indicator such as word order, question mark, intonation and stress. We can also analyze felicity condition of each utterance to support the other indicators.

3.2 Recommendation

Based on the conclusion presented above, there are some recommendations to the readers of this study, especially who are interested in speech acts study.

1. This study contains much information about speech acts study. Students or maybe people who are interested in speech acts study can use the information as one of the references.

2. This study uses public speaking as a medium of understanding the speech acts. Public speaker or people who learned communication can use this study to understand how speech acts works in each utterance and how to produce a good speech which maintains its speech acts and the messages that want to be conveyed can be delivered properly.

3. For the future researcher, this study can be a beneficial input to do a similar research on speech acts. However, since this study only uses one speech to discuss about the speech acts, it’s recommended to use more speeches in order to get better point of view of how speech acts works.

4. For the further research on speech acts, it is recommended that the researcher can use other various forms of communication such as dialogue, storytelling, letters, podcast, and other forms of communication. It is because when we use other various forms of communication, hopefully we can find other features that can’t be covered in this study.

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5. In relation to teaching field, teachers can use this study for the reference when they teach about public speaking, especially when the discussion is about the linguistic part of public speaking.

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36 Because I had dropped out and I didn’t have to take the normal classes, I decided to take a calligraphy class to learn how to do this.

Representative Description

37 I learned about serif and san serif typefaces, about varying the amount of space between different letter combinations, about what makes great typography great.

Representative Description

38 It was beautiful, historical, artistically subtle in a way that science can’t capture, and I found it fastinating.

Representative Description

39 None of this had even a hope of any practical application in my life.

Representative Claim 40 But ten years later, when we were designing

the first Macintosh computer, it all came back to me.

Representative Description

41 And we designed it all into the Mac. Representative Description 42 It was the first computer with beautiful

typography.

Representative Claim 43 If I never dropped in on that single course in

college, the Mac would have never had multiple typefaces or proportionally spaced fonts.

Representative Claim

44 And since Windows just copied the Mac, its likely that no personal computer would have them.

Representative Claim

45 If I had never dropped out, I would have never dropped in on this calligraphy class, and the personal computers might not have the wonderful typography that they do.

Representative Claim

46 Of course it was impossible to connect the dots looking forward when I was in college.

Representative Claim 47 But it was very, very clear looking backwards

then years later.

Representative Description 48 Again, you can’t connect the dots looking

forward; you can only connect them looking backwards.

Representative Claim

49 So you have to trust that the dots will somehow connect in your future.

Directive Suggestion 50 You have to trust in something, your God,

destiny, life, karma, whatever.

Directive Suggestion 51 Because believe in the dots connect down the

road will give you the confidence to follow your heart even when it leads you off the well-worn path and that would make all the

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difference.

52 My second story is about love and loss. Representative Description

53 I was lucky. Representative Claim

54 I found what I loved to do early in life. Representative Description 55 Woz and I started Apple in my parents garage

when I was 20.

Representative Description 56 We worked hard, and in 10 years Apple had

grown from just two of us in a garage into a $2 billion company with over 4000

employees.

Representative Description

57 We had just released our finest creation, Macintosh, a year earlier, and I had just turned 30.

Representative Description

58 And then I got fired. Representative Description

59 How can you get fired from a company you started?

Representative Description 60 Well, as Apple grew we hired someone who I

thought was very talented to run the company with me.

Representative Description

61 And for the first year or so things went well. Representative Description 62 But then our visions of the future began to

diverge and eventually we had a falling out.

Representative Description 63 When we did, our Boards of Directors sided

with him.

Representative Description 64 So at 30 I was out and very publicly out. Representative Description 65 What had been the focus of my entire adult

life was gone, and it was devastating.

Representative Description 66 I really didn’t know what to do for a few

months.

Representative Description 67 I felt that I had let the previous generation of

entrepreneurs down that I had dropped the baton as it was being passed to me.

Representative Description

68 I met with David Packard and Bob Noyce and tried to apologize for screwing up so badly.

Representative Description 69 I was a very public failure, and I even thought

about running away from the valley.

Representative Description 70 But something slowly began to dawn on me. Representative Discription 71 I still loved what I did. Representative Description 72 The turn of events at Apple had not changed

that one bit.

Representative Description 73 I’d been rejected, but I was still in love. Representative Claim 74 And so I decided to start over. Representative Description

75 I didn’t see it then. Representative Description

(3)

was the best thing that I could have ever happened to me.

77 The heaviness of being successful was replaced by the lightness of being the beginner again, less sure about everything.

Representative Description

78 It freed me to enter the most creative periods of my life.

Representative Description 79 During the next five years, I started a

company named NeXT, another company named Pixar, and fell in love with an amazing woman who would become my wife.

Representative Description

80 Pixar went out to create the worlds first computer animated feature film, Toy Story, and is now the most successful animation studio in the world.

Representative Claim

81 In a remarkable turn of events, Apple bought NeXT, I returned to Apple, and the

technology we developed at NeXT is at the heart of Apple’s curent renaissance.

Representative Description

82 And Laurene and I have a wonderful family together.

Representative Description 83 I’m pretty sure none of this would have

happened if I hadn’t been fired from Apple.

Representative Claim 84 It was awful tasting medicine, but I guess the

patient needed it.

Representative Description 85 Sometime life hits you in the head with a

brick.

Representative Description

86 Don’t lose faith. Directive Suggestion

87 I’m convinced that the only thing that kept me going was that I loved what I did.

Representative Description 88 You’ve got to find what you love. Directive Suggestion 89 And that is as true for your work as it is for

your lovers.

Representative Claim 90 Your work is going to fill a large part of your

life, and the only way to be truly satisfied is to do what you believe is great work.

Representative Claim

91 And the only way to do great work is to love what you do.

Representative Claim 92 If you haven’t found it yet, keep looking and

don’t settle.

Directive Suggestion 93 As with all matters of the heart, you’ll know

when you find it.

Commissive Guarantee 94 And like any great relationship, it just get

better and better as the years roll on

(4)

95 So keep looking. Directive Suggestion

96 Don’t settle Directive Suggestion

97 My third story is about death. Representative Description 98 When I was 17, I read a quote that went

something like: “ If you live each day as if it was your last day, someday you’ll most certainly be right.”

Representative Description

99 It made an impression on me, and since then, for the pass 33 years, I have looked in the mirror every morning and asked my self: “ If today were the last day of my life, what I want to do, what I am about to do today?”

Representative Description

100 And whenever the answer has been “No” for too many days in a row, I know I need to change something.

Representation Conclusion

101 Remembering that I’ll be dead soon is the most important tool I’ve ever encountered to help me make the big choices in life.

Representative Claim

102 Because almost everything, all external expectations, all pride, all fear of

embarrassment or failure, these things just fall away in the face of death, leaving only what is truly important.

Representative Description

103 Remembering that you are going to die is the best way I know to avoid the trap of thinking you have something to lose.

Representative Claim

104 You are already naked. Representative Claim

105 There is no reason not to follow your heart. Representative Claim 106 About a year ago I was diagnosed with

cancer.

Representative Description 107 I had a scan at 7.30 in the morning, and it

clearly showed a tumor on my pancreas.

Representative Description 108 I didn’t even know what a pancreas was. Representative Claim 109 The doctor told me this was almost certainly a

type of cancer that is incurable, and that I should expect to live no longer than three or six months.

Representative Description

110 My doctor advised me to go home and get my affairs in order, which is doctor’s code for prepare to die.

Representative Description

111 It means to try to tell your kids everything. Representative Description 112 You thought you’d have the next 10 years to

tell them in just a few months.

Representative Description 113 It means to make sure everything is buttoned Representative Description

(5)

up so that it will be as easy as possible for your family.

114 It means to say your goodbyes. Representative Description 115 I lived with that diagnosis all day. Representative Description 116 Later that evening I had a biopsy, where they

stuck an endoscope down my throat, through my stomach and into my intestines, put a needle into my pancreas and got a few cells from the tumor.

Representative Description

117 I was sedated. Representative Description

118 But my wife, who was there, told me that when they viewed the cells under the

microscope the doctors started crying because it turned out to be a very rare form of

pancreatic cancer that is curable with surgery.

Representative Description

119 I had the surgery and thankfully, I’m fine now.

Expressive Gratitude 120 This was the closest I’ve been to facing death Representative claim 121 and I hope it’s the closest I get for a few more

decades.

Commisive Wishing 122 Having live through it, I can now say this to

you a bit more certainty than when death was a useful but purely intellectual concept

Representative Claim

123 No one wants to die. Representative Claim

124 Even people who want to go to heaven don’t want to die to get there.

Representative Description 125 And yet death is the destination we all share. Representative Description 126 No one has ever escaped it. Representative Claim 127 And that is as it should be, because death is

very likely the single best invention of life.

Representative Claim 128 It is Life’s change agent. Representative Description 129 It clears out the old to make way for the new. Representative Description 130 Right now the new is you, but someday not

too long from now, you will gradually became the old and be cleared away.

Commissive Guarantee

131 Sorry to be so dramatic, but it is quite true. Representative Claim 132 Your time is limited, so don’t waste it living

someone else’s life.

Directive Suggestion 133 Don’t be trapped by dogma, which is living

with the results of other people’s thinking.

Directive Suggestion 134 Don’t let the noise of others’ opinions drown

out your own inner voice.

Directive Suggestion 135 And most important, have the courage to

follow your heart and intuition.

(6)

136 They somehow already know what you truly want to become.

Directive Claim 137 Everything else is secondary. Representative Claim 138 When I was young, there was an amazing

publication called the Whole Earth Catalog, which was one of the bibles of my generation.

Representative Decription

139 It was created by a fellow named Steward Brand not far from here in Menlo Park, and he brought it to life with his poetic touch.

Representative Description

140 This was in the late 1960’s, before personal computers and desktop publishing, so it was all made by typewriters, scissors, and polaroid cameras.

Representative Description

141 It was sort of like Google in paperback form, 35 years before Google came along: it was idealistic, and overflowing with neat tools and great notions.

Representative Description

142 Steward and his team put out several issues of the Whole Earth Catalog, and then when it had run its course, they put out a final issue.

Representative Description

143 It was the mid-1970s, and I was your age. Representative Description 144 On the back cover of their final issue was a

photograph of an early morning country road, the kind you might find yourself hitchhiking on if you were so adventurous.

Representative Description

145 Beneath it were the words: “Stay Hungry, Stay Foolish.”

Representative Description 146 It was their farewell message as they signed

off.

Representative Description 147 Stay Hungry, Stay Foolish. Representative Description 148 And I have always wished that for myself. Representative Claim 149 And now, as you graduate to begin a new, I

wish that for you.

Commissive Wish

150 Stay Hungry, Stay Foolish. Directive Suggestion

151 Thank you all very much. Expressive Gratitude

Number of Sentence Containing Speech Acts

Declaration Representative Directive Expressive Commissive

A speech act analysis of the 2005 Stanford University commencement speech by Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer and PIXAR animation studio.

A SPEECH ACT ANALYSIS OF THE 2005

STANFORD UNIVERSITY COMMENCEMENT SPEECH

BY STEVE JOBS, CEO OF APPLE COMPUTER

AND PIXAR ANIMATION STUDIO

A SPEECH ACT ANALYSIS OF THE 2005

STANFORD UNIVERSITY COMMENCEMENT SPEECH

BY STEVE JOBS, CEO OF APPLE COMPUTER

AND PIXAR ANIMATION STUDIO

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A speech act analysis of the 2005 Stanford University commencement speech by Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer and PIXAR animation studio.

A SPEECH ACT ANALYSIS OF THE 2005

STANFORD UNIVERSITY COMMENCEMENT SPEECH

BY STEVE JOBS, CEO OF APPLE COMPUTER

AND PIXAR ANIMATION STUDIO

A SPEECH ACT ANALYSIS OF THE 2005

STANFORD UNIVERSITY COMMENCEMENT SPEECH

BY STEVE JOBS, CEO OF APPLE COMPUTER

AND PIXAR ANIMATION STUDIO

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