Theoretical Description REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Description

On this chapter we will discuss about the theories used in this study. There are some views from the experts that show various cases why someone does not want to become a teacher, or even changes his career direction from a teacher to other occupation. The curriculum and educational system, which are then, victimized the teachers. As a result they will seriously consider giving up teaching as a career Harris, 1988. An expert from Sanata Dharma University, the late Drs. Agustinus Samana, M.Pd. also said that in our society recently, we can see there are some negative tendencies and symptoms dealing with the effort to produce new teachers. Potential youth healthy, tough and highly intelligent, are seldom spontaneously interested to enter teachers training and education. Samana, 1994. There were two theories related to the teacher career selection. They are Human Motivation theory and Teacher Stress and Burnout. There were also explanation about Microteaching and Teaching Practice Program PPL as the foundation of this study. The theories dealing with this issue are mentioned as follows: 1. Human Motivation Gellerman 1963 emphasizes that internal tensions are at the base of motivation. Motivation, as we commonly use the term, is our speculation about someone elses purpose, in which we usually expect to find the purpose in some 10 11 immediate and obvious goal such as money or security or prestige . … Thus wealth, safety, status, and all the other kinds of goal that supposedly Cause behavior are only paraphernalia for attaining the ultimate purpose of any individual, which is to be himself. p. 190. The following are several theories about human motivation. a. Maslow and Basic Needs One model of motivation that has gained a lot of attention, but no complete acceptance, has been put forward by Abraham Maslow. Maslow’s theory argues that individuals are motivated to satisfy a number of different kinds of needs, some of which are more powerful than others or to use the psychological jargon, are more prepotent than others. The term prepotency refers to the idea that some needs are felt as being more pressing than the others. Maslow argues that until these most pressing needs are satisfied, other needs have little effect on an individual’s behavior. In other words, we satisfy the most prepotent needs first and the progress to the less important to us. Other needs loom up and become motivators of our behavior. Maslow represents this prepotency of needs as a hierarchy. The most prepotent needs are shown at the bottom of the ladder, with prepotency decreasing as one progress upwards. In Figure 2.1 we can see the Hierarchy of Prepotency by Abraham Maslow. 12 Figure 2.1 Hierarchy of Prepotency by Abraham Maslow 1 self actualization – reaching your maximum potential, doing your own best thing 2 esteem – respect from others, self respect, recognition 3 belonging – affiliation, acceptance, being part of something 4 safety - physical safety, psychological security 5 Physiological – hunger, thirst, sex, rest. The first needs that anyone must satisfy are physiological. b. Motivation – Hygiene Theory M-H Frederick Herzberg and his associates began their research into motivation during the 50’s, examining the models and assumptions of Maslow and others. The result of this work was the formulation of what Herzberg termed the Motivation-Hygiene Theory M-H. The basic hypotheses of this theory are that: 1 There are two types of motivators, one type which results in satisfaction to the job and the other which merely prevents dissatisfaction. The two types are quite separate and distinct from one another. Herzberg called the factors which result in job satisfaction as motivators and those that simply prevented dissatisfaction as hygiene. 13 2 The factors that lead to job satisfaction the motivators are: a achievement b recognition c work itself d responsibility e advancement 3 The factors which may prevent dissatisfaction the hygiene are: a company policy and administration b working conditions c supervision d interpersonal relations e money f status g security Many contemporary authors have also defined the concept of motivation. Motivation has been defined as: the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction Kreitner, 1995; a predisposition to behave in a purposive manner to achieve specific, unmet needs Buford, Bedeian, Lindner, 1995; an internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied need Higgins, 1994; and the will to achieve Bedeian, 1993. For this paper, motivation is operationally defined as the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish personal and organizational goals. 14 2. Teacher Stress and Burnout The other cause that may lead people giving up being a teacher is the impact of burn out and stress. The impact of teacher stress and burnout on our educational system is easily imagined and clearly serious. On their article Coping With Teacher Stress: A Research Synthesis for Pacific Educators, Zoe Ann Brown and Denise L. Uehara cited: Teaching can be a stressful occupation. The daily interactions with students and coworkers and the incessant and fragmented demands of teaching often lead to overwhelming pressures and challenges, which may lead to stress. Where work stress is unrelenting, some negative physiological, psychological, and behavioral consequences may result. DeRobbio Iwanicki, 1996, p. 1 Teacher stress is defined by Kyriacou 1987 as “the experience by a teacher of unpleasant emotions, such as tension, frustration, anxiety, anger, and depression, resulting from aspects of work as a teacher” p. 146. Teacher burnout is defined by Kyriacou 1987 as “the syndrome resulting from prolonged teacher stress, primarily characterized by physical, emotional and attitudinal exhaustion” p. 146. Current teachers will pursue alternative sources of satisfaction and continue to seek career changes Barry, 1991. Teacher stress and burnout may be in the form of depression facing uncontrollable students and their disability in handling the class situation. Stress and burnout could be the realization of their anxiety facing their students. According to Brown and Uehara high stress can lead teachers to leave their profession. 15 3. Microteaching Microteaching provides an opportunity for faculty and teaching assistants to improve their teaching practices through a “teach, critique, re-teach” model. Microteaching is valuable for both new and experienced faculty to hone their teaching practices. It is often used in student teacher training programs to provide additional experience before or during the clinical experiences. Richter, 2009. According to Academic Guidance Book of English Language Education Study Program, the goal of Microteaching is that the students understand the concepts and procedure of English language teaching and are able to apply them in a real classroom teaching situation and to evaluate their teaching performance. 4. Teaching Practice Program According to Pedoman Pelaksanaan Program Pengalaman Lapangan Universitas Sanata Dharma, Teaching Practice can be explained as below. a. Nature of Teaching Practice Teaching Practice PPL is designed to train teacher candidates to have teaching skill completely and integrated. This Program includes not only teaching, but also learning practice and learning how to do other educational assignments. Teaching Practice is the final destination from all pre-teacher position programs. Therefore, Teaching Practice is carried out after students get enough preparation in various field related to their duties as a teacher. The duties are basic educational mastery, subject mastery, and learning process management. Teaching skill has many aspects related to what should be 16 trained periodically and integrated. All teaching skills above need to be based with values and positive teaching attitudes. b. Objectives of Teaching Practice Program Teaching Practice PPL is aimed for student teachers to have competencies as mentioned below: 1 Identify school social environment carefully and comprehensively, including physical aspect, administrative system, curricular system, and educational activities. 2 Apply various teaching skills comprehensively and integrated in real situation supervised by the teacher and Teaching Practice lecturer. 3 Take the benefits of Teaching Practice Program in order to have teaching skill professionally. c. Status Teaching Practice is an obligatory pass subject valued 2-6 credits, and minimum grade C. d. Place and Time 1 Place Teaching Practice is carried out in high school junior high school senior high school, and vocational school 2 Time Teaching Practice in ELESP of SDU is carried out by ‘blok’ system the students come to school everyday for about three months, ‘sebaran’ 17 system the students come to school three or four times a week for about six months. In special case, if needed mix system can be applied. e. Prerequisites Students who are allowed to do Teaching Practice Program are those one who have completed the prerequisites below: 1 Already complete skill and competence subjects in faculty level below with minimum grade C. a Pengantar Pendidikan b Psikologi Belajar dan Pembelajaran c Dasar-dasar Bimbingan dan Konseling d Psikologi Remaja e Manajemen Sekolah 2 Already complete PBM subjects below with minimum grade C. a Perencanaan Pengajaran b Metodologi Pengajaran c Evaluasi Pengajaran d Pengajaran Mikro microteaching 3 Already complete certain subjects determined by the study program. f. Activities 1 Making activity plan 2 Doing school observation 3 Knowing learning process and students’ activities 4 Carrying out the teaching-learning activities 18 5 Making models and media for teaching importance 6 Doing administrative job 7 Participating in school teaching facilities maintenance 8 Participating in school curricular and extracurricular activities 9 Holding other activities 10 Attending meetings with guidance lecturer and build good relationship with school 11 Making reports 12 Doing final oral test as a responsibility to guidance lecturer

B. Theoretical Framework