12
E. Reference
Reference occurs when elements not only to get interpretation systematically but also give reference to other something to be interpretated. The
reference refers to the same thing.
17
In the case of reference, the meaning of a dummy word can be determined by what is imparted before or after the
occurrence of dummy word. In general, the dummy word is a pronoun.
18
And in English, types of reference consist of personal particels, demonstratives and
comparatives.
19
For examples: 1
I see John is here. He hasn‟t changed a bit.
2
She certainly has changed. No, behind John. I mean Karin.
But reference can also be achieved by other means, for instance, by the use of a definite article or an adverb,
20
as in the examples below: 3
A man crossed the street. Nobody saw what happened. Suddenly the man
was lying there and calling for help. 4
We grew up in the 1960s. We were idealistic then.
There are two ways to work out the full meaning of a reference word in a
text. One is to look in the surrounding text, can call this text reference. The other is to look outside the text in the real world, we shall call it situation reference.
The word we, for instance, refers to a group of people including the writer or
17
J.D Parera 2004,op.cit., p. 225.
18
Jan Renkema 2004,op.cit., p. 104.
19
M.A.K Halliday, and Hasan 1976, op.cit., p. 31.
20
Jan Renkema, loc. cit.
13
speaker. To arrive at the meaning of we in a text, then, we need to know who the speaker or writer is, and which other people are included.
21
It is important to grasp the difference between reference and substitution. Reference is a relation between the meaning of a word and its environment, where
the environment can be the text or the real world. Substitution is a relation between words: a substitute such as one replace another word or phrase. This
means that there is no such things as „situation substitution‟ or put it more concrete
, a verb substitute like do can‟t refer to anything outside the text, but only to words in the text.
22
Reference
Situational Textual
Exophora Endophora
to preceding text to following text Anaphora
Cataphora Diagram 1. Categories of Reference
The diagram above, b ased on Halliday‟s theory,reference can be divided
into two categories. Those are exophora and endophora. And there are two different ways in which reference items can function within a text. They can
function in an anaphoric way, or they can function in a cataphoric way.
23
21
Raphael Salkie, Text and Discourse Analysis London: Routledge, 1995, p. 65.
22
Ibid.
23
David Nunan, Discourse Analysis London: Penguin Group, 1993, p. 22.
14
1. Exophora
Exophora reference is an interpretation on words that related and depend on situational context.
24
Based on Parera, the source information gained through the elements of extrinsic of the text called exophora. The elements of exophora
generally related by context the discourse.
25
Example:
5 Climbing out of poverty by your own efforts, that is indeed something on which
to pride yourself, but poverty itself is romanticised only by fools.
The word your included exophora reference, which is the word your that
related and depend on situational context. Then, that sentence is a part of JK.Rowling‟ speech in Harvard University, and the word your refers to President
Faust, members of the Harvard Corporation and the Board of Overseers, members of the faculty, proud parents, and all graduates.
2. Endophora
Meanwhile additional information within the discouse called endophora. Endophora can be defined into anaphora and cataphora reference. In anaphora
reference, the elements needed to interprete are in front of before the discourse. Then, cataphora reference happen if the elements needed to interpreteare in the
part or after the discourse.
26
Examples:
6 Mr. George is not a teacher. He actuallly want to help children in that
village to study.
He refers to Mr. George,he explain Mr. George. Here, the anaphora
reference happen. The pronoun He include is the item of anaphora in the text.
24
M.A.K Halliday, and Hasan 1976, op.cit.,p. 33.
25
J.D Parera 2004,op.cit., p. 226.
26
Ibid.
15
7His declaration make the furies of society. President increased the cost of
the fuel.
His refers to what is said follow, that is president. Therefore, His include
the item of cataphora. There are three types of reference based on Halliday
and Hasan‟s theory, they are: personal, demonstrative, and comparative.
27
a. Personal Reference
Personal reference is the reference refers to individual in utterance situation, through the category of person. Personal category included personal
pronouns, possessive determiners usually called possessive adjective, and possessive pronoun.
28
So, those which include in personal reference is all forms of personal pronoun, singular or plural. In this case it is also include in personal
reference.
29
Table 1.2 Personal Reference Person
Head Modifier
Personal Pronoun
Possessive Determiner
Possessive Pronoun
1st person singular I
Me My
Mine 1st person plural
We Us
Our Ours
2nd person singular You
You Your
Yours 2nd person plural
You You
Your Yours
2nd person male He
Him His
His 2nd person female
She Her
Her Hers
27
M.A.K Halliday, and Hasan 1976, op.cit.,p. 37.
28
Ibid. p. 43.
29
Ibid. p. 44.
16
3rd person plural They
Them Their
Theirs 3rd person object
It It
Its Its
Generalized person One
One One‟s
Ones Since the first and second person pronouns I, you and we involve the
speaker or writer and the listener or reader, they are normally used for situation reference. the third person pronouns can be usedfor both types of reference. In
speech these pronouns normally involve situation reference, while text reference is more common in writing.
30
Following are two examples of he:
8
[Watching a person on a film] „Wasn‟t he also the chief baddie in the film
Hudson Hawk?‟ 9Maurice Oberstein, the gravel-voiced boss of Polygram and, at 63, a
veteran of the record industry , is particularly dismissive. „Overmight
sensations are crap,‟ he declares.
The first example involves situation reference, and the last example involves text reference.
According to grammatical concept, the personal can be grouped into three group, they are first person I, We, second person you, third person he, she,
it.
31
Examples:
10My sister and I are leaving. We have seen quite enough of this
unpleasantness. In the example above, personal reference showed with first person
personal pronouns I and my in my sister refers to someone who said the utterance. Meanwhile, the second person plural we in second the sentence refers
to my sister and I.
30
Raphael Salkie 1995, op.cit., p. 66.
31
M.A.K Halliday, and Hasan 1976, op.cit., p. 43.
17
b. Demonstrative Reference
Demonstrative reference is expressed through determiners and adverbs. This items can represent a single word or phrase, or much longer chunks of text-
ranging across several paragraphs or even several pages.
32
Neutral the
Near Far Not near
near: far: Singular:
this that
Selective Participant
Plural: these those
Place: here
there Circumstance
Time: now
then Diagram 2. Demonstrative Reference
Based on the diagram above, nominal demonstrative reference refers to some thing that close and unclose, they are thisthese and thatthose. In dialogue
there is some tendency for the speaker to use this to refer something that himself has said and that to refer to something said by his interlocutor.
33
For examples: 11
There seems to have been a great deal of sheer carelessness. This is what I
can‟t understand. 12
Yes, that‟s what I can‟t understand.
32
David Nunan 1993, op.cit., p. 23.
33
M.A.K Halliday, and Hasan 1976, op.cit., p. 60.
18
This and that is another one whereby proximity is interpreted in terms of
time, in this case that tends to be associated with a past time referent and this for
one in the present or future.
34
For example: 13
We went to the opera last night. That was our first outing for months.
The example above, demonstrative reference appeared by existing
demonstrative pronoun that refers to time where is in the past
that utterance “last night”.
Demonstrative reference is a kind form of verbal pointing. The speaker identifies referents by locating it on scale of proximity. Then, demonstrative
reference classified into two types, they are adverbial demonstrative reference here, there, now, then, and nominal demonstrative reference this, these, that,
those. Adverbial demonstrative reference refers to the place of a process in a space or time, whereas nominal demonstrative reference refers to the place of
someone or something. typically some entity person or object that is participating in the process.
35
Nominal demonstrative that refers to single noun is this and that. And, nominal demonstrative that refers to plural noun is these and those.
36
The reference that refers to location in a process about space or time
appeared on words here, there, now, and then.
37
Here and there refers to place or
refers to things generally that has been mention before. Whereas, thenand now
refers to time.
38
For examples:
34
Ibid.
35
Ibid. pp. 57-58.
36
Ibid. p. 62.
37
Ibid. p. 57.
38
Ibid. p. 74.
19
14
The class is finished. Now we can go home. Based on the example above, the word now refers to time when that
utterance said. The use of now is confined to those instances in which the
meaning is „this state of affairs having come about‟.
39
One of the demonstrative reference item is the.The create cohesion
relationship which follows by noun or the things mention before.
40
For example: 15
I saw a house yesterday. The house was antique. From the bold
“the”, it is clear that that device refers to thing that has been mentionin sentence before which is house.
c. Comparative Reference
Comparative reference
is expressed
through adjectives
and adverbs.
41
When two or more things are compared in a text, this can often contribute to cohesion. We can distinguish two types of comparison, they are
general comparison and particular comparison.
42
General comparison express equaland unequal to the things compared. To general comparison can refers to the same things same, equal, identical,
identically, similar things such, similar, so, similarly, likewise or to different things.
43
For example: 16
It‟s the same cat as the one we saw yesterday.
Based on the example above, there is a cohesion comparative reference that showed by general comparison which refer to the same thing, signed by
39
Ibid. p. 75.
40
Ibid. p. 71.
41
David Nunan 1993, op.cit., p. 24.
42
Raphael Salkie 1995,op.cit., p. 68.
43
M.A.K Halliday, and Hasan 1976, op.cit.,p. 77.
20
words same as. Whereas the comparison in that sentence is the cat that saw when that sentence said with the cat that saw yesterday.
Meanwhile, particular comparison expresses comparability between things in respect of a particular property. The property in question may be a matter of
quantity or of quality.The comparison that shows quantity expressed in more or as. Then, the comparison is in terms of quality, it is expressed in comparative
adjective, eg: easier in easier tasks, more difficult in more difficult tasks.
44
For example:
17
We are demanding higher living standard than we have now. The most generalized comparative is actually the superlative, highest
means simply „higher than any other‟.
45
F. Context
Kategori