The previous explanation tells how communicative competence, which is interpreted in every single term, is classified. Furthermore,
another comprehensive classification, as found in website, refers to: a.
Grammatical competence: is the degree to which the language user has mastered the linguistic code, including vocabulary, grammar,
pronunciation, spelling, and word formation. b.
Sociolinguistic competence: is the extent to which utterances can be used or understood appropriately in various social contexts. It includes
knowledge of speech acts such as persuading, apologizing, and describing.
c. Discourse competence: is the ability to combine ideas to achieve
cohesion in form and coherence in thought, above the level of the single sentence.
d. Strategic competence: is the ability to use strategies like gestures or
“talking around” an unknown word in order to overcome limitation in language knowledge.
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Finally, it is clear that in learning a language, the learners need not only knowledge of structures and vocabularies, but also they require to
know how the language elements work together when the learners try to produce a well communication as an achievement of communicative
competence.
3. The Characteristics and Features of Communicative Approach
Communicative Approach, like another language teaching method, has some characteristics which can distinguish it from others. William
Littlewood notes that “One of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to
functional as well as structural aspects of language, combining these into a more fully communicative view”.
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http:www.freewebs.comdzchunUnit202.htm Friday, 3
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of August 2007: 19.33.
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William Littlewood, Communicative Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 1.
In line with his opinion, Diane Larsen-Freeman asserts that “The most obvious characteristic of the Communicative Approach is that almost
everything that is done is done with a communicative intent”.
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Based on both statements, it may be concluded that the characteristic of Communicative Approach is obviously stressed on how
language is given and produced communicatively. Then, features are also available in Communicative Approach.
Marianne Celce-Murcia asserts that “… one of the features of the Communicative Approach is that students be given a choice of how they
wish to express themselves”.
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The similar assertions come from David Nunan. He mentions some features of Communicative Approach, they are:
a. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the
target language. b.
The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation. c.
The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning process itself.
d. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as
important contributing elements to classroom learning. e.
An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.
The more clear features, as Finocchiaro and Brumfit point out, are: a.
Meaning is paramount. b.
Dialogs, if used, center around communicative functions and are not normally memorized.
c. Contextualization is a basic promise.
d. Language learning is learning to communicate.
e. Effective communication is sought.
f. Drilling may occur, but peripherally.
g. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.
h. Any device which helps the learners is accepted – varying according to
their age, interest, etc. i.
Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning. j.
Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible. k.
Translation may be used where students need or benefit from it.
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Larsen-Freeman, Techniques and …, p. 132.
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Celce-Murcia, Teaching English …, p.294.
l. Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired.
m. The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of
struggling to communicate. n.
Communicative competence is the desired goal i.e. the ability to use the linguistic system effectively and appropriately.
o. Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methodology.
p. Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content, function, or
meaning which maintains interest. q.
Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language.
r. Language is created by the individual often trough trial and error.
s. Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal: accuracy is
judged not in the abstract but in context. t.
Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their writings.
u. The teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will use.
v. Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being
communicated by the language.
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I. Audio Lingual Method
1. The Understanding of Audio-Lingual Method
There are at least two underlying causes for the birth of Audio- Lingual Method, they are;”… the belief that all behavior including
language was learnt through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement, and … the outbreak of World War II, which created the
need to post large number of American servicemen … to provide these soldiers with at least basic verbal communication skills”.
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Therefore, Audio-Lingual Method’s theory of learning is partly derived from habitual activities by viewing its theory of language, as what
William Moulton in Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching argues “language is speech, not writing … a language is a set of habits …
teach the language, not about the language … a language is what its native
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Richards and Rodgers, Approaches and …, p. 67.
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http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiAudio-Lingual_Method Friday, 3
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of August 2007: 19.47.
speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say … languages are different”.
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In line with his view of language, Scott Thornbury asserts that “Audiolingualism derived its theoretical base from behaviorist
psychology, which considered language as simply a form of behavior, to be learned through the formation of correct habits”.
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Behavior is an individual’s act or the way how someone behaves. It may turn into a habit if it is performed frequently. In the view of theory of
learning, behavior is principally specified into three: “A stimulus, which serves to elicit behavior; a response triggered by stimulus; and
reinforcement, which serves to mark the response”.
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Stimulus – response - reinforcement, those are linked tightly to provide a good behavior. There will be presented a good habit particularly
in learning process if those continue regularly. By being a core in using those models to the language learning, as what Harmer has expressed, “...
it attempted, through a continuous process of such positive reinforcement, to engender good habits in language learners”.
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2. The Objective of Audio-Lingual Method
