The Organization of Study Teaching Passive Voice of Present Progressive Tense by Using

1. To contrast the significant difference of results in teaching Passive Voice of Present Progressive Tense by using Communicative Approach and Audio-Lingual Method. 2. To find out the effectiveness of using Communicative Approach in teaching Passive Voice of Present Progressive Tense.

D. The Method of Study

In gaining good data, the writer obtains the method of study by using field research. The field research is done by conducting an experiment at two classes using different methods of teaching. The first class or experiment class, the writer employs the teaching by using Communicative Approach. Then, another class or controlled class, the writer applies the teaching by using Audio-Lingual Method. The writer gives the pre-test to make the population becomes homogenous before he does the teaching of passive voice of present progressive tense. And, finally, the writer presents the post-test to inform the significance differences of results after the lesson is finished.

E. The Hypothesis of Study

1. Alternative Hypothesis H a There is a significant difference of the students’ results between using Communicative Approach and using Audio-Lingual Method in teaching passive voice of present progressive tense. 2. Null Hypothesis H o There is no a significant difference the students’ results between using Communicative Approach and using Audio-Lingual Method in teaching passive voice of present progressive tense.

F. The Organization of Study

To facilitate the discussion and presentation, the organization of this writing is divided into four chapters. Chapter One is an Introduction that consists of the Background of Study, the Limitation and the Formulation of Problem, the Objective of Study, the Method of Study, the Hypothesis of Study, and the Organization of Study. Chapter Two explains the Theoretical Framework that consists of Passive Voice of Present Progressive Tense, Communicative Approach, Audio-Lingual Method, and Teaching Passive Voice of Present Progressive Tense by Using Communicative Approach. Moreover, Passive Voice of Present Progressive Tense includes the understanding of passive voice, present progressive tense, and passive voice of present progressive tense. Communicative Approach includes the understanding, communicative competence, and the characteristics and features of using Communicative Approach. Audio-Lingual method involves its understanding, objectives, and characteristics and features. Chapter Three conveys about the Research Methodology and Finding. Research Methodology involves the subject of research, the place and time, the population and sample, the instrument of research, the teaching procedures, the technique of data collecting, and the technique of data analysis. Then, Research Finding involves the description of data, the analysis of test, the testing of hypothesis, and the interpretation of data. Finally, the last chapter or Chapter Four is about the Conclusion and Suggestion. They are core review of previous discussion in this paper and some suggestions may be useful, especially, for the English teachers in “SMK Islamiyah Ciputat – Tangerang”, and the readers in general. CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

G. Passive Voice of Present Progressive Tense

1. The Understanding of Passive Voice

As a two-sided coin, passive voice is the opposite of active voice in sentence pattern. Both show different understanding and function and have dissimilar rule in use. In case of this research, there will be only passive voice is explained more rather than one. Some linguists have already tried to have comprehensive view about passive voice, and H. Sweet is the one of those whom has done it. He states, “The passive voice is … a grammatical device for a bringing the object of a transitive verb into prominence by making it the subject of the sentence, and b getting rid of the necessity of naming the subject of a transitive verb”. 6 Another idea belongs to Warriner, it is “A verb is said to be in the active voice when it expresses an action performed by its subject”. 7 Sentence does, at least, contain of a subject and a verb. Based on the explanation above, a sentence which has no object, or it is usually named intransitive, will not be able to be turned into passive voice. This occurs because in passive sentence, its subject is derived from the object of active sentence. As what Azar writes, “In the passive, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb”. 8 According to Marcella Frank about passive voice that “… the same action is referred to indirectly; that is, the original ‘receiver’ of the action 6 Ljiljana Mihailovic, “Some Observations on the Use of the Passive Voice”, in W. L. Darley ed., English Language Teaching, Plaistow: Oxford University Press, 1963, vol. XVII No. 2, p. 77. 7 John E. Warriner, English Grammar and Composition, New York: Harcout Brain Jovanovich Publisher, 1982, p. 166. 8 Betty Schrampfer Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1989, second edition, p. 120. is the grammatical subject, and the original ‘doer’ of the action is the grammatical object of the preposition by”. 9 Here, she illustrates the subject by naming original doer and the object refers to original receiver. Also, it is used a preposition by to clear what things to be the object. As it has been demonstrated in the beginning, passive voice has certain function in its usage. Martin Parrot says “We choose passive constructions to avoid very long subjects – a passive construction allows us to put a long andor complex phrase at the end of a clause where it is easier to understand than at the beginning”. 10 Then, another is simply addressed by Marcella Frank, “The passive voice is preferred when the “doer” of an action or, the agent is unimportant or unknown”. 11 In line with hers, Menachem B. Dagut tells that “… the passive in English is primarily used to enable the speakerwriter to describe an action or event, without being obliged to specify the doer or cause of the action or event”. 12 Furthermore, in detail of its general use, Martin Parrot implies as follows: a. to describe processes The beans are picked in late summer and are left to dry in the sun. b. to introduce evidence, argument, or opinion It is sometimes argued that … c. to avoid the implication of personal involvement or responsibility The vase got broken, Mum. d. with certain verbs – verbs we use when the person who did the action is generally unimportant He is alleged to be in sanatorium. 13 9 Marcella Frank, Modern English; a practical reference guide, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1972, p. 55. 10 Martin Parrot, Grammar for English Language Teachers, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 288. 11 Frank, Modern English; part I, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1972, p. 67. 12 Menachem B. Dagut, “a Teaching Grammar of the Passive Voice in English”, in Bertil Malmberg and Gerhard Nickel eds., International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, Hemsbach: Beltz Offsetdruck, 1985, p. 5. 13 Parrot, Grammar for ..., p. 288 – 289. It may be illustrated for the summary of passive voice’s usage shown by Patrick Kameen: a. use the passive to place a short object and verb before a long subject thus avoiding front-heavy sentences The IRS has been cheated by otherwise honest individuals who feel too large a percentage of their salaries goes for taxes and who believe that the government is wasting their tax dollars. b. use the “it” or “second passive” form to sound objective or to indicate that there is no absolute proof for the statement It is said that the governor is a high-stakes gambler. c. use the agentless passive when the agent is well known, unknown, or unimportant Cars are manufactured in Detroit. d. use the agentless passive to describe technical processes and to report research procedures and results Hydrogen and chlorine were combined, and the resulting chemical reaction was observed e. use the passive with the by-agent phrase when referring to historically or socially significant works Gone With the Wind was written by Margaret Mitchell. 14 Else, there is a rule must be noticed in forming passive voice. Dissimilar with active, in producing passive sentence, not all the verbs are able to be turned into passive. As it has been viewed that only transitive verbs are able to be changed to passive. But, not all transitive verbs can be a verb for passive. Michael Swan has told that “Some transitive verbs cannot be used in the passive, at least in certain of their meanings. Most of these are “stative” verbs verbs which refer to states, not actions, and which often have no progressive forms. Examples are: They have a nice house. But not: A nice house is had …”. 15 Moreover, Biber has mentioned the verbs single word transitive verbs and single-object prepositional verbs as follows: • single word transitive verbs: agree, climb, dare, exclaim, guess, hate, have, hesitate, joke, lack, let, like, love, mind, pretend, quit, reply, 14 Patrick Kameen, “the Passive Voice: it must be spoken for”, in John F. Haskel ed., TESOL NEWSLETTER, Illinois: Pantagraph Printing, 1983, p. 181. 15 Michael Swan, Practical English Usage, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983, p. 462. resemble, survive, swear, thank, try, undergo, want, watch, wish, wonder, yell • single-object prepositional verbs: agree towith, apologise tofor, belong to, bet on, come acrossfor, compete with, cope with, correspond to, glance at, laugh aboutat, listen to, live likewith, look atlike, participate in, smile at, stay with, talk aboutto, wait forwith 16

2. The Understanding of Present Progressive Tense

Present progressive tense belongs to the several tenses stand for the events in progress. This corresponds to what Azar states that “The progressive tenses give the idea that an action is in progress during a particular time. The tenses say that an action begins before, is in progress during, and continues after another time or action”. 17 A similar assertion has been made by Patricia K. Werner, it is “The present continuous tense can describe activities at the moment of speaking, activities currently in progress, or plans for the future”. 18 And here are her examples to be noticed: Uses Examples Notes Activities at the Moment of Speaking I’m doing my homework now. She’s studying at the library. Activities Currently in Progress I’m taking math this semester. He’s majoring in Chemistry. Plans for the Future We aren’t moving tomorrow. We’re moving on Saturday. Time expressions often used with the present continuous tense include now, right now, at the moment, today, this week month, year, these days, currently, nowadays. Moreover, B. D. Graver argues that “The progressive forms represent actions or events, viewed at some point between their beginning and end”. 19 16 Douglas Biber, et al., Grammar of Spoken and Written English, London: Longman, 1999, p. 481. 17 Azar, Understanding and …, p. 3. 18 Patricia K. Werner, et al., Interactions 2 Grammar, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002, p. 11. 19 B. D. Graver, Advanced English Practice, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 62. Like other tenses, it is required to have general consideration for using present progressive tense. Martin Parrot pronounces its usage that “… to refer to something temporary which has begun and has not finished, something which is completable and is in the process of being completed”. 20 Furthermore, here are some functions of employing present progressive tense declared by Michael Swan: a. The present progressive tense is made with amareis + -ing. The commonest use of the present progressive tense is to talk about actions and situations that are already going on at the moment of speaking. Why are you crying? Is something wrong? b. The present progressive is also used to talk about future happenings. My sister is living at home for the moment. c. We sometimes use the present progressive in a more general way, to talk about something that may be going on at any time. You look lovely when you are smiling. 21 In addition, other perceptions of the usage of present progressive tense stated by Rosamund Moon, they are “… to indicate that an action continues to happen before and after a particular time ex: I’m looking at the photographs my brother sent me., and … for an action that continues to happen before and after another action that interrupts it ex: The phone always rings when I’m having a bath.”. 22

3. The Passive Voice of Present Progressive Tense

As they have already been explained, passive voice is a sentence pattern formed by to be and followed by a past participle and composed by transitive verbs, while present progressive tense is a tense functions to express actions or events in progress. If both are fused, there will be a new 20 Parrot, Grammar for …, p. 157. 21 Swan, Practical English …, p. 496-497. 22 Rosamund Moon, et al., Cobuild Student’s Dictionary and Grammar, London: HarperCollins Publishers Ltd., 1994, p. 43. definition that passive voice of present progressive tense is an expression of present progressive tense in form of passive. To form the passive voice of the present continuous tense, use am, is, or are + being + past participle. The passive voice subject determines whether the verb be is singular or plural. 23 In another, a same thought has been found in Cobuild Student’s Dictionary and Grammar drawn that “Continuous passive tenses are formed with a form of the auxiliary ‘be’ followed by being and the past participle of a main verb”. 24 Active Passive The Soviet Union is sending ships into outer space. Ships are being sent into outer space. Present Continuous Tense Researchers are launching a new rocket today. A new rocket is being launched today. Here, there will be a classification of sentence as an example according to its words composition. The sentence : The Soviet Union is sending ships into outer space. Subject to be V -ing Object Analysis : The sentence has Subject the Soviet Nation, to be + V -ing is sending, and Object ships. Its verb belongs to present progressive tense and transitive verb because there is an Object follows. Thus, it may become passive and it is shown as follows: The Sentence : Ships are being sent into outer space. Subject to be+V -ing past participle Analysis : Subject in passive sentence ships is derived from Object of active sentence as shown above. And, Object in passive is taken from Subject of active sentence. Object may be involved or not. It is based on the purpose whether the original doer is important or not to be known. 23 Werner, et al., Interactions 2 …, p. 280-281. 24 Moon, et al., Cobuild Student’s …, p. 85. Furthermore, as it has been demonstrated, the transformation of Verb belongs to passive present progressive tense. It is recognized that the formula is to be + V -ing + past participle V 3 . To be is decided by Subject whether it is singular first person I, plural first person we, singular second person you, singular third person she, he, it, or plural second person they. Subject ships is plural third person, therefore it applies to be as illustrated below: Singular first person I am Plural first person we are Singular second person you are Singular third person she, he, it is Plural third person they are Therefore, Subject ships uses to be “are”. According to the purposes, sentences can be divided into four sub- types; declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory sentence. 25 In this occasion, there will be only explained declarative, contains of affirmative and negative sentence, and interrogative sentence. a. Affirmative sentence Subject To be V -ing Past Participle Object Complement They lectured by their teacher - The apple pies which I like very much are eaten by my young brother - My brother’s black motorcycle repaired a mechanic - MaryAntonSheHe is being asked by hisher mother to buy some meals 25 Muhammad Farkhan, an Introduction to Linguistic, Jakarta: UIN Jakarta Press, 2006, p. 89-90. b. Negative sentence Subject To be Negative Sign V -ing Past Participle Object Complement They lectured by their teacher - The apple pies which I like very much are eaten by my young brother - My brother’s black motorcycle repaired by a mechanic - MaryAnton SheHe is not being asked by hisher mother to buy some meals c. Interrogative sentence To be Subject V -ing Past Participle Object Complement they lectured by their teacher? - Are the apple pies which i like very much asked by my young brother? - my brother’s black motorcycle repaired by a mechanic? - Is MaryAntonshehe being eaten by hisher mother to buy some meals?

H. Communicative Approach

There are several methods used in a language teaching. Each method has different objectives which are formulized according to how the language and its teaching and learning principles are viewed. A language teaching principle dynamically will keep on varying since there are more desires to make a new change in designing the system to address a new language to the learners. Therefore, there will be no language teaching method is employed for a long time as a transformation of a method will always be made to achieve certain needs. The various language teaching methods which have already created and been available serve simply to the one whom is linked in an educational system, for instance a teacher, a syllabus maker, etc., to choose which method is appropriate to be applied. Even, it is possible not only to select one of language teaching methods but also to pick more than one of them which will be applied in the different education level in order to get effectively the certain goals gained by the language learners. In this case, to recognize completely the chosen methods to be implemented in this research, therefore there will be some discussions explain about Communicative Approach and Audio-Lingual Method.

1. The Understanding of Communicative Approach

Communicative Approach was created to fulfill certain necessities and to achieve its purposes that those didn’t happen in the preceding time. Historically, as Scott Thornbury writes, “The development, in the 1970s, of Communicative Language Teaching CLT was motivated by developments in the new science of sociolinguistics, and the belief that communicative competence consists of more than simply the knowledge of the rules of grammar”. 26 In addition, “The Communicative Approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audio-lingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction”. 27 Communicative Approach which is usually called Communicative Language Teaching is “An approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate 26 Scott Thornbury, How to Teach Grammar, Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Education Limited, 1999, p. 22. 27 http:www.monografias.comtrabajos18the-communicative-approachthe-communicative- approach.shtml Friday, 3 rd of August 2007: 19.14. goal of learning a language”. 28 In line with the initial definition, Jack C. Richards, John Platt, and Heidi Platt cite that Communicative Approach is “An approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence”. 29 Furthermore, Hymes and Halliday note some ideas about Communicative Approach, they are: a. It is assumed that the goal of language teaching is learner ability to communicate in the target language. b. It is assumed that the content of a language course will include semantic notions and social functions, not just linguistic structure. c. Classroom materials and activities are often authentic to reflect real- life situations and demands. 30 It may be resumed from the reflections above that “Communicative Language Teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication”. 31 Real-life situations, here, refer to the actions or events which the learners experience in their daily life, for instance receiving a phone, asking direction, etc. Then, Communicative Approach underlines the use of a language in language teaching and learning and, as Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers argue that “It stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes”. 32 Michael Canale and Merrill Swain state “A Communicative Approach … is organized on the basis of communicative functions … that a given learner or group of learners needs to know and emphasizes the ways in which particular grammatical forms may be used to express these 28 http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiCommunicative_language_teaching Friday, 3 rd of August 2007: 19.23. 29 http:www.freewebs.comdzchunUnit202.htm Friday, 3 rd of August 2007: 19.41. 30 Celce-Murcia, Teaching English …, p. 8. 31 http:www.monografias …, Friday, 3 rd of August 2007: 19.39. 32 Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986, p. 66. functions accurately”. 33 Although grammar is not stressed exclusively, it is concerned how the learners are able to produce a communication with the correct grammar. Grammar is important, and learners seem to focus best on grammar when it relates to their communicative needs and experiences. 34 This means there is a special consideration for grammar lesson in this method and it affiliates to other competencies to work together. After having viewed several theories of Communicative Approach, it may be understood partially of its essence, as it has been asserted by Marianne Celce-Murcia that “The essence of Communicative Language Teaching is the engagement of learners in communication in order to allow them to develop their communicative competence”. 35

2. The Communicative Competence

Communicative competence, as shown in the previous discussion, is the aim of language learning in Communicative Approach. According to Menachem B. Dagut, communicative competence is “the ability to communicate both actively, by expression, and passively, by comprehension, in the foreign language”. 36 Meanwhile, as it is found in a website about communicative competence, it tells that “Communicative competence is a linguistic term which refers to a learners L2 ability. It not only refers to a learners ability to apply and use grammatical rules, but also to form correct utterances, and know how to use these utterances appropriately”. 37 33 Michael Canale and Merrill Swain, Approaches to Communicative Competence, 30 Orange Grove Road: Seameo Regional Language Centre, 1980, occasional papers no. 14, p. 2. 34 Celce-Murcia, Teaching English …, third edition, p. 25. 35 Celce-Murcia, Teaching English …, p. 27. 36 Dagut, “a Teaching …, p. 2. 37 http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiCommunicative_competence Friday, 3 rd of August 2007: 19.56. From both references, it is obvious that communicative competence means the learners ability to use language in their communication regarding to its utterances and use of structures. Communicative competence involves being able to use the language appropriate to a given social context. 38 Also, as cited by Scott Thornbury, “Communicative competence involves knowing how to use the grammar and vocabulary of the language to achieve communicative goals and knowing how to do this in a socially appropriate way”. 39 Therefore, Diane Larsen-Freeman suggests that to accomplish those, “… students need knowledge of the linguistic forms, meanings, and functions”. 40 Canale and Swain 1980 in Approach and Methods in Language Teaching written by Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers mention that there are four dimensions to identify communicative competence as follows: … four dimensions of communicative competence are identified: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. Grammatical competence refers to what Chomsky calls linguistic competence and what Hymes intends by what is “formally possible.” It is the domain of grammatical and lexical capacity. Sociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, including role relationships, the shared information of the participants, and the communicative purpose for their interaction. Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text. Strategic competence refers to the coping strategies that communicators employ to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and redirect communication. 41 38 Diane Larsen-Freeman, Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986, p. 131. 39 Thornbury, How to …, p. 18. 40 Larsen-Freeman, Techniques and …, p. 131. 41 Richards and Rodgers, Approaches and …, p. 71. The previous explanation tells how communicative competence, which is interpreted in every single term, is classified. Furthermore, another comprehensive classification, as found in website, refers to: a. Grammatical competence: is the degree to which the language user has mastered the linguistic code, including vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, spelling, and word formation. b. Sociolinguistic competence: is the extent to which utterances can be used or understood appropriately in various social contexts. It includes knowledge of speech acts such as persuading, apologizing, and describing. c. Discourse competence: is the ability to combine ideas to achieve cohesion in form and coherence in thought, above the level of the single sentence. d. Strategic competence: is the ability to use strategies like gestures or “talking around” an unknown word in order to overcome limitation in language knowledge. 42 Finally, it is clear that in learning a language, the learners need not only knowledge of structures and vocabularies, but also they require to know how the language elements work together when the learners try to produce a well communication as an achievement of communicative competence.

3. The Characteristics and Features of Communicative Approach

Communicative Approach, like another language teaching method, has some characteristics which can distinguish it from others. William Littlewood notes that “One of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language, combining these into a more fully communicative view”. 43 42 http:www.freewebs.comdzchunUnit202.htm Friday, 3 rd of August 2007: 19.33. 43 William Littlewood, Communicative Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 1. In line with his opinion, Diane Larsen-Freeman asserts that “The most obvious characteristic of the Communicative Approach is that almost everything that is done is done with a communicative intent”. 44 Based on both statements, it may be concluded that the characteristic of Communicative Approach is obviously stressed on how language is given and produced communicatively. Then, features are also available in Communicative Approach. Marianne Celce-Murcia asserts that “… one of the features of the Communicative Approach is that students be given a choice of how they wish to express themselves”. 45 The similar assertions come from David Nunan. He mentions some features of Communicative Approach, they are: a. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language. b. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation. c. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning process itself. d. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning. e. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom. The more clear features, as Finocchiaro and Brumfit point out, are: a. Meaning is paramount. b. Dialogs, if used, center around communicative functions and are not normally memorized. c. Contextualization is a basic promise. d. Language learning is learning to communicate. e. Effective communication is sought. f. Drilling may occur, but peripherally. g. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought. h. Any device which helps the learners is accepted – varying according to their age, interest, etc. i. Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning. j. Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible. k. Translation may be used where students need or benefit from it. 44 Larsen-Freeman, Techniques and …, p. 132. 45 Celce-Murcia, Teaching English …, p.294. l. Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired. m. The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of struggling to communicate. n. Communicative competence is the desired goal i.e. the ability to use the linguistic system effectively and appropriately. o. Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methodology. p. Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content, function, or meaning which maintains interest. q. Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language. r. Language is created by the individual often trough trial and error. s. Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal: accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context. t. Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their writings. u. The teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will use. v. Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language. 46 I. Audio Lingual Method 1. The Understanding of Audio-Lingual Method There are at least two underlying causes for the birth of Audio- Lingual Method, they are;”… the belief that all behavior including language was learnt through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement, and … the outbreak of World War II, which created the need to post large number of American servicemen … to provide these soldiers with at least basic verbal communication skills”. 47 Therefore, Audio-Lingual Method’s theory of learning is partly derived from habitual activities by viewing its theory of language, as what William Moulton in Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching argues “language is speech, not writing … a language is a set of habits … teach the language, not about the language … a language is what its native 46 Richards and Rodgers, Approaches and …, p. 67. 47 http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiAudio-Lingual_Method Friday, 3 rd of August 2007: 19.47. speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say … languages are different”. 48 In line with his view of language, Scott Thornbury asserts that “Audiolingualism derived its theoretical base from behaviorist psychology, which considered language as simply a form of behavior, to be learned through the formation of correct habits”. 49 Behavior is an individual’s act or the way how someone behaves. It may turn into a habit if it is performed frequently. In the view of theory of learning, behavior is principally specified into three: “A stimulus, which serves to elicit behavior; a response triggered by stimulus; and reinforcement, which serves to mark the response”. 50 Stimulus – response - reinforcement, those are linked tightly to provide a good behavior. There will be presented a good habit particularly in learning process if those continue regularly. By being a core in using those models to the language learning, as what Harmer has expressed, “... it attempted, through a continuous process of such positive reinforcement, to engender good habits in language learners”. 51

2. The Objective of Audio-Lingual Method

Unlike the objective of Communicative Approach is to achieve communicative competence, however, Audio-Lingual Method has probably no similar objectives with it and other methods. Brooks clarifies the objectives of Audio-Lingual Method into two terms, short-range and long-range objectives. He explains “Short-range objectives include training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of 48 Richards and Rodgers, Approaches and …, p. 49-50. 49 Thornbury, How to …, p. 21. 50 Richards and Rodgers, Approaches and …, p. 50. 51 Jeremy Harmer, the Practice of English Language Teaching, Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Education Limited, 2001, third edition, p. 79. speech symbols as graphic signs on the printed page, and ability to reproduce these symbols in writing, and … long-range objectives must be language as the native speaker uses it …“. 52 Continuing previous explanation of Audio-Lingual Method’s objectives, others are as follows: a. accurate pronunciation and grammar b. ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations c. knowledge of sufficient vocabulary to use with grammar patterns 53 To attain those objectives, the learners should have, as found in article of certain website, “… extensive repetition and a variety of elaborate drills”. 54 In case, the teacher is emphasized to modify a subject matter which is given to the learners. The subject matter should be easily understood and repeated. It is expected the learners may follow to the learning activities without being uninterested for keeping identical teaching. Furthermore, Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers imply the fundamental teaching-learning activities, that “Dialogues and drills form the basis of audiolingual classroom practices … dialogues are used for repetition and memorization … correct pronunciation, stress, rhythm, and intonation are emphasized”. 55 It is clear that the repetition and drills underlying the techniques in learning activities emphasize the learners to be an imitator. They will follow repeatedly what their teacher does. The repeated activities on a dialogue for gaining students memorization need a listening skill. Therefore, it requires a native speaker-like model in order to avoid an incorrectly-material production. In addition, grammar, as the basic sub- 52 Richards and Rodgers, Approaches and …, p. 52. 53 http:www.sil.orglingualinksLANGUAGELEARNINGWaysToApproachLanguageLearnin gTheAudioLingualMethod.htm Friday, 3 rd of August 2007: 18.32. 54 http:www.englishraven.commethod_audioling.html Friday, 3 rd of August 2007: 18.16. 55 Richards and Rodgers, Approaches and …, p. 53. skill, is supplied from the given dialogue or example. In conclusion, well performance of the teacher’s teaching style in serving new languages will decide the learners’ competence in producing communication.

3. The Characteristics and Features of Audio-Lingual Method

The characteristics of Audio-Lingual Method, according to Freeman, they are: “new vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogs. The dialogs are learned through imitation and repetition. Drills such as repetition, backward build-up, chain, substitution, transformation, and question-and-answer are conducted based upon the pattern presents in the dialog. Students’ successful responses are positively reinforced. Grammar is induced from the examples given; explicit grammar rules are not provided. Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogs or presented by the teacher. Students’ reading and written work is based upon the oral work they did earlier”. 56 The features of Audio-Lingual Method are as follows: a. lessons begin with dialogs b. mimicry and memorization are used, based on the assumption that language is habit formation c. grammatical structures are sequenced and rules are taught inductively d. skills are sequenced: listening, speaking, reading, writing postponed e. pronunciation is stressed from the beginning f. vocabulary is severely limited in initial stages g. a great effort is made to prevent learner errors h. language is often manipulated without regard to meaning or context i. the teacher must be proficient only in the structures, vocabulary, etc. that she is teaching since learning activities and materials are carefully controlled 57 To have more knowledge comprehensively about the features of Audio-Lingual Method, Finocchiaro and Brumfit mention in detail of it as follows: a. attends to structure and form more than meaning b. demands memorization of structure-based dialogs c. language items are not necessarily contextualized d. language learning is learning structures, sounds, and words e. mastery or over-learning is sought 56 Larsen-Freeman, Techniques and …, p. 43. 57 Celce-Murcia, Teaching English …, p. 6. f. drilling is a central technique g. native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought h. grammatical explanation is avoided i. communicative activities only come after a long process of rigid drills and exercises j. the use of the student’s native language is forbidden k. translation is forbidden at early levels l. reading and writing are deferred till speech is mastered m. the target linguistic system will be learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system n. linguistic competence is the desired goal o. varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized p. the sequence of units is determined solely by principles of linguistic complexity q. the teachers control the learners and prevents them from doing anything that conflicts with the theory r. language is habit so errors must be prevented at all costs s. accuracy in terms of formal correctness is a primary goal t. students are expected to interact with the language system, embodied in machines or controlled materials u. the teacher is expected to specify the language that students are to use v. intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of the language 58

J. Teaching Passive Voice of Present Progressive Tense by Using

Communicative Approach The teaching process that should be adjusted with the material will be given. In teaching grammar, it requires the certain steps in order to make the teaching process successively and the students may get the point gradually. Therefore, Marianne Celce-Murcia and Sharon Hilles have pointed out the steps of teaching grammar in general: 1. Presentation, … introduces the grammar structure, either inductively or deductively. 2. Focused practice, in which the learner manipulates the structure in question while all other variables are held constant. The purpose of this step is to allow the learner to gain control of the form without the added pressure and distraction of trying to use the form for communication. 3. Communicative practice, in which the learner engages in communicative activities to practice the structure being learned. 58 Richards and Rodgers, Approaches and …, p. 67. • Information gap, in the course of doing the activity, one participant should be in a position to tell one or more other people soothing that the others do not yet know. • Choice, the speaker must have some role in deciding exactly what he will say and how he will say it. • Feedback, what the speaker says to the persons he is communicating with depends not only on what the other persons says, but also on what the speaker wants to accomplish via the conversation. 4. Teacher feedback and correction, … teacher feedback should always attempt to engage the student cognitively rather than to simply point out the error and provide the appropriate target form. 59 There are various techniques and resources that can be used during the presentation. The presentation itself is affected by a method used in teaching process and it should correspond to the appropriateness towards the given material. The selection of presentation is made according to the teacher, the students’ preferences, and the subject matter. According to Freeman, there are some techniques and materials which those characteristics belong to Communicative Approach, they are: • Authentic materials To overcome the typical problem that students can’t transfer what they learn in the classroom to the outside world and to expose students to natural language in a variety of situations, adherents of the Communicative Approach advocate the use of authentic materials, for instance using newspaper, realia, etc. • Scrambled sentences The students learn how sentences are bound together at the suprasentential level through formal linguistic devices, for instance the students are asked to unscramble the sentences into the correct one. • Language games The students find them enjoyable, and if they are properly designed, they give students valuable communicative practice. • Picture strip story The students can share information or work together to arrive at solution. This gives students practice in negotiating meaning. 59 Celce-Murcia and Sharon Hilles, Techniques and Resources in Teaching Grammar, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988, p. 27-28. • Role play Role plays are very important in the Communicative Approach because they give students an opportunity to practice communicating in different social contexts and different social roles. 60 Moreover, there are some guidelines written by Penny Ur for having a good presentation commonly in presenting and explaining a new grammatical structure 1. A good presentation should include both oral, and written forms, and both form and meaning. 2. It is important for learners to have plenty of contextualized examples of the structure and to understand them. Visuals materials can also contribute to understanding. 3. The learners will benefit more from the use of terminology. 4. The explanation should cover the great majority of instances learners are likely to encounter. 61 Then, here are the steps how passive voice of present progressive tense, which is derived from Marianne Celce-Murcia’s Techniques and Resources in Teaching Grammar, is introduced. The technique of presenting material uses a role playstorytelling combination. It is preferred in order to elicit the rule for forming the passive from the students rather than simply telling them the rule. 62 The teacher felt that by the time students reach an intermediate level, they should be proficient at both hamming it up and participating as an audience. The teacher acts as a narrator of the story. Heshe is helped by two students, a girl as Luisa and a boy as the man as the actor. Luisa is given a purse for supporting the story. The other students keep on listening and watching and try to follow the story. Before the teacher reads hisher story, heshe guides the actors to do based on the scenario. The teacher’s narration of the scene for the class as follows: “Luisa is walking alone with her purse hung on her hand.” 60 Larsen-Freeman, Techniques and …, p. 155-157. 61 Ur, a Course …, p. 82-83. 62 Celce-Murcia and Hilles, Techniques and …, p. 30. “In the other side, a man is watching her curiously. “Luisa doesn’t realize that she is being followed.” The teacher tries to focus the students by asking them: “What is happening to Luisa?” The students are expected to answer; she is being followed. They will probably answer incorrectly, but it is tolerated. The teacher directs the correct answer without wasting more time. After that heshe continues to concentrate them to the role play and her narration. “The man approaches her and, soon, he grabs her purse which is being held.” “She screams loudly and everyone around her tries to chase him” The teacher stops hisher narration and asks to one or all of the students: “What is happening to Luisa’s purse?” The answer should be; it is being grabbed. The teacher maintains hisher story: “Now, the man is being chased so he runs faster.” “But, he can’t save himself and he is arrested.” The teacher asks to the audience: “At the present, what is happening to the man?” The teacher writes each statement on the board after eliciting it from the students. Not all the suggestions are grammatically correct, but when they can’t provide the form exactly, heshe accepts appropriate content and puts the grammatically correct form on the board in order to give feedback: “The man is being chased, he is being caught …” The teacher ends hisher narration and thanks the two students for participating in role play while the others give applause. After all the forms are written on the board, the teacher proceeds as follows: “Now this is sort of interesting. We have a new grammatical form here. Does anyone know what this is called?” Perhaps, there are no students provide the name of the form, so the teacher says: “This is called passive voice, specifically is named passive voice of present progressive tense.” If one of the students can answer the teacher’s question, heshe may ask that student to repeat hisher answer loudly until the others can listen it well. Then the teacher explains why the context demands use of the passive voice. Hisher explanation is more like a dialog with the students than a lecture. It goes something like this: “What is important to Luisa?” The students respond, “Her purse.” “That’s right. Luisa is interested in her purse. She doesn’t even know the person who took it. The thief isn’t interesting. If Luisa calls you on the phone to tell you about her experience, what are you interested in?” Again, the students respond, “Her purse.” “That’s right. And that’s why Luisa is talking about her purse, not the person who took it. Sometimes we’re more interested in what receives the action than what does the action. In this case, the person who did the action is a stranger. We’re not interested in her. We want to talk about what’s important to us. So this is one time we would use the passive voice in English.” The teacher then writes the rule on the board, under the heading Passive Voice of Present Progressive Tense. Heshe explains its formula and rules and how they are implemented in forming the sentences. After having introduced what is passive voice of present progressive tense, the next activities may run variously. The activities tend to have students’ understanding by doing focused practice. The focused practice should be based on Communicative Approach’s principles. One of its illustrations, which are adopted from New Ways in Teaching Grammar, may be shown as follows: 1. The teacher divides the class into two groups consist of active and passive group. 2. Heshe presents the active group an article which contains active voice and vice versa. Both articles use present progressive tense. 3. Heshe asks the active group to underline the verbs in the passage and change them to passive and vice versa. 4. Heshe requests each group to write the results on board and asks them to analyze their opponent’s answer based on the articles they have. If there is an incorrect answer, the opponent should mark it and change correctly. 5. Heshe lets them to know the correct answer by giving the explanation. 6. Then, for additional activity, heshe may have them to find out as much as possible the information from each passage and discuss it together. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND FINDING

A. Research Methodology