Indirect Speech Definition of Terms

10 3 Identifying the difference between what learners produced with the reconstructed version.

c. Description of Errors

This step deals with the identification of how the forms produced by the learners are different from the forms produced by native speakers in the same level. There are two steps in describing errors according to Ellis and Barkhuizen 2005, which are describing the categories for coding the errors which have been identified and documenting the frequency of the errors in each category. According to James 1998, as cited by Ellis and Barkhuizen 2005, in categorizing errors, two kinds of taxonomy can be used. They are linguistic taxonomy and surface structure taxonomy. In linguistic taxonomy, errors can be categorized based on the descriptive grammar of the target language. Meanwhile, according to Dulay, Burt, and Krashen as cited by Ellis and Barkhuizen 2005: 61, errors in surface structure taxonomy are divided into four categories. They are omission, addition, misformation, and misordering. 1 Omission Dulay et al. 1982: 154 state “Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance.” The example is shown in the omission of some words in Mary president new company which should be Mary is the president of the new company. 2 Addition According to Dulay et al. 1982: 156, the character of addition errors is the existence of an item that should not exist in a well-formed utterance, for 11 example is the addition of –ed in the past form of the word eat instead of using ate, so that the word becomes eated. 3 Misformation “Misformation errors are characterized by the use of wrong form of the morpheme or structure” Dulay et al., 1982: 158. Different from omission, in which the item does not exist at all, in misformation errors, the item exists but it is in incorrect form. The example is shown on the use of me as both a subject and an object pronoun and the use of don’t + verb1 and no + verb1 Ellis and Barkhuizen, 2005: 61. 4 Misordering Dulay et al. 1982: 162 state “Misordering errors are characterized by the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance.” The example is the misplacement of the word is on the sentence I do not know what is it, which should be I do not know what it is.

d. Explanation of Errors